t 


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PRINCETON,  N.  J. 


Purchased  by  the  Hamill  Missionary  Fund. 


-T4£ 


Section 


1 


Panama  to  Patagonia 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/panamatopatagoni00pepp_0 


A Mouivhfain  Bridge 


Panama  to  Patagonia 

The  Isthmian  Canal 

And  the  West  Coast  Countries  of 
South  America 

By  ^ 

Charles  M,  Pepper 

Author  of  “Tomorrow  in  Cuba” 

With  Maps  and  Illustrations 


Second  Edition 


New  York 

Toung  People  s Missionary  Movement 
of  the  United  States  and  Canada 


Copyright 

A.  C.  McCluro  & Co. 
1906 

Entered  at  Stationers’  Hall 


Published  March  24,  1906 


THE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS,  CAMBRIDGE,  U.  S.  A. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  AFFECTIONATELY  DEDICATED 


TO 

Ml 

KITTIE  ROSE  PEPPER 


AND  TO 

iWg  ®au0|)tet 

NORITA  ROSE  PEPPER 


COMRADES  IN  MANY  TRAVELS 


PREFACE 


My  purpose  in  this  work  is  to  consider  and  de- 
scribe the  effect  of  the  Panama  Canal  on  the 
West  Coast  countries  of  South  America  from  the  year 
1905.  At  this  period  its  construction  by  the  United 
States  may  be  said  to  have  begun.  If  my  own  deep 
conviction  that  this  influence  makes  powerfully  for 
their  industrial  development  and  their  political  stability 
be  an  illusion,  the  pages  which  follow  may  afford  the 
disbelievers  grounds  for  pointing  out  wrong  premises 
or  false  conclusions.  “ We  doubt”  long  has  been  the 
dogma  of  the  North  American  and  the  European  in 
everything  relating  to  the  permanency  of  progress  in 
the  Spanish-American  Republics.  “ I believe  ” is  yet 
only  the  creed  of  the  individual.  A huge  material 
fact  obtruding  itself  may  secure  a listening  ear  from 
the  doubters.  The  Canal  obtrudes. 

The  severely  practical  Northern  mind  finds  itself  in 
a brain-fog  with  reference  to  the  Southern  Continent. 
Speculative  reasoning  regarding  new  forces  of  civiliza- 
tion does  not  appeal  to  it.  It  wants  the  concrete  cir- 
cumstances. Now  the  Canal  is  not  an  abstraction. 
The  industrial  and  commercial  energies  which  it  wakens 
are  not  abstractions.  The  interoceanic  waterway  is  a 
national  undertaking,  but  it  shows  the  way  to  indi- 
vidual enterprise.  More  than  the  gates  of  chance  are 


PREFACE 


viii 

opened  to  American  youth.  They  are  the  gates  of 
opportunity.  Consequently  the  need  of  knowledge. 

The  number  of  recent  books  relating  to  the  history 
of  South  America  seems  to  indicate  a demand  for  this 
knowledge  in  its  primary  form.  They  open  the  path 
for  a volume  which  may  be  limited  more  strictly  to 
industrial,  fiscal,  and  political  information.  For  that 
reason,  while  not  overlooking  the  historical  element  in 
the  institutions  and  governmental  systems,  I have  not 
thought  it  necessary  to  consider  them  chronologically 
from  the  colonial  epoch  or  even  from  the  era  of  inde- 
pendence. 

The  effort  to  divorce  economic  and  social  forces 
from  places  and  peoples  in  order  to  analyze  a prin- 
ciple usually  is  so  barren  that  I have  not  attempted 
it.  Places  have  their  significance,  and  people  are  the 
human  material.  Customs  and  institutions  are  only 
understood  properly  in  their  environment.  So  many 
excellent  descriptive  works  have  been  written  about 
South  America  that  I have  sought  to  subordinate 
these  features ; yet  since  the  information  applies  to 
localities  something  about  them  could  not  entirely 
be  omitted.  Moreover,  I have  that  abounding  faith 
which  leads  me  to  look  forward  to  the  time  when 
the  engineering  marvels  of  the  Canal  construction  may 
prove  enough  of  a magnet  to  draw  thither  the  travelled 
American  who  would  know  w’hat  his  country  is  doing 
and  who,  once  on  the  Isthmus,  will  be  likely  to  con- 
tinue down  the  West  Coast  with  a view  to  determining 
the  relative  attractions  of  the  noble  Andes  and  the 
Alps.  Yet  I have  made  no  attempt  to  preserve  the 


PREFACE 


IX 


form  of  continuous  narrative.  The  treatment  of  the 
subject  does  not  demand  it. 

To  South  American  friends  who  may  be  offended 
at  the  frankness  or  the  bluntness  of  the  views  ex- 
pressed, a word  may  be  communicated.  The  confi- 
dences extended  me  while  on  an  official  mission 
widened  my  own  vision  of  the  aspirations  of  their 
public  men.  At  the  same  time  they  conveyed  the 
idea  that  the  economic  evolution  to  which  all  look 
forward  will  come  more  swiftly  if  reactionary  ten- 
dencies are  combated  more  openly  and  aggressively. 
Opinions  on  the  policy  of  the  United  States  being 
uttered  with  freedom,  I have  not  thought  it  necessary 
to  adopt  the  apologetic  attitude  in  regard  to  other 
Republics.  In  seeking  the  constructive  elements  in 
the  national  life  and  character  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can countries,  it  has  been  with  the  undisguised  hope 
that  the  contact  and  the  impact  of  North  American 
character  may  be  a reciprocal  influence. 

Acknowledgment  of  material  for  the  general  map, 
which  amplifies  that  of  the  permanent  Pan-American 
Railway  Committee,  is  due  its  chairman,  Hon.  H.  G. 
Davis,  whose  faith  in  the  future  relation  of  the  United 
States  to  the  other  American  countries  is  an  example 
to  the  generation  which  will  share  the  benefits  both  of 
the  Canal  and  of  railroad  construction. 

C.  M.  P. 

Washington,  D.  C. 

January,  1906, 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

ECONOMIC  EFFECT  OF  THE  CANAL  Page 

Philosophic  Spanish-American  View  — Henry  Clay’s  Mistaken  Pop- 
ulation Prophecy  — The  Andes  Not  a Canal  Limitation  — 
Intercontinental  Railway  Spurs  — Argentina  and  the  Amazon 
as  Feeders  — Centres  of  Cereal  Production  — Crude  Rubber — 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Traffic  — Growth  of  West  Coast  Com- 
merce— North  and  South  Trade-wave  — Distances  via  Panama, 

Cape  Horn,  and  the  Straits  of  Magellan  — Waterway  Tolls 
and  Coal  Consumption  — Ecuador  and  Peru  — Bolivia  and 
Chile  — Isthmian  Railroad  Rates — Value  of  United  States  San- 
itary Authority — American  Element  in  New  Industrial  Life  . i 

CHAPTER  II 

TRAVEL  HINTS 

Adopting  Local  Customs  — Value  of  the  Spanish  Language  — 
Knowledge  of  People  Obtained  through  Their  Speech — English 
in  Trade  — Serviceable  Clothing  in  Different  Climates  — Mod- 
eration in  Diet — Coffee  at  its  True  Worth  — Wines  and 
Mineral  Waters  — Native  Dishes  — Tropical  Fruits  — Aguacate 
and  Cheremoya  Palatal  Luxuries  — Hotels  and  Hotel-keepers  — 
Baggage  Afloat  and  Ashore  — Outfits  for  the  Andes  : Food  and 
Animals — West  Coast  Quarantines  — Money  Mediums  — The 
Common  Maladies  and  How  to  Treat  Them 21 

CHAPTER  III 

THE  ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA 

Canal  Entrance  — Colon  in  Architectural  Transformation — Un- 
changing Climate  — Historic  Waterway  Routes  — Columbus 
and  the  Early  Explorers  — Darien  and  San  Bias  — East  and 
West  Directions  — Life  along  the  Railway  — Chagres  River  and 
Culebra  Cut  — Three  Panamas  — Pacific  Mouth  of  the  Canal 
— Functions  of  the  Republic  — Natural  Resources  — Agricul- 


CONTENTS 


xii 


ture  and  Timber  — Road-building — United  States  Authority 
on  the  Zone  — Labor  and  Laborers  — Misleading  Comparisons 
with  Cuba  — The  First  Year’s  Experience 

CHAPTER  IV 

A GLIMPSE  OF  ECUADOR 

Tranquil  Ship  Life  — Dissolving  View  of  Panama  Bay  — The 
Comforting  Antarctic  Current  — Seeking  Cotopaxi  and  Chimbo- 
razo— Up  the  Guayas  River  — Activity  in  Guayaquil  Har'oor 
— Old  and  New  Town  — Shipping  via  the  Isthmus  and  Cape 
Horn  — - Chocolate  and  Rubber  Exports  — Railway  toward 
Quito  — A Charming  Capital — Cuenca’s  Industries — Cereals 
in  the  Inter-Andine  Region  — Forest  District  — Minerals  in 
the  South  — Population  — Galapagos  Islands  — Political  Equi- 
librium — National  Finances 

CHAPTER  V 

PERUVIAN  SHORE  TOWNS 

Pizarro’s  Landing-place  at  Tumbez — Last  Sight  of  the  Green 
Coast  — Paita’s  Spacious  Bay — Lively  Harbor  Scenes — An 
Interesting  and  Sandy  Town  — Its  Climatic  and  Other  Legends 
— Future  Amazon  Gateway  — Sugar  and  Rice  Ports  — Eten  and 
Pacasmayo  — T ranscontinental  T rail  — Cajamarca  — Chimbote’s 
Naval  Advantages  — Supe’s  Attractions  — Ancon’s  Historic 
Treaty  — Callao’s  Excellent  Harbor — Importance  of  the  Ship- 
ping— Customs  Collections — Pisco’s  Varied  Products  — Rough 
Seas  at  Mollendo — Bolivian  and  Peruvian  Commerce  for  the 
Canal 


CHAPTER  VI 

LIMA  AND  THE  CORDILLERAS 
Pleasing  Historic  Memories  — Moorish  Churches  and  Andalusian 
Art  — Pizarro’s  Remains  in  the  Cathedral  — Transmitted 
Incidents  of  the  Earthquake  — The  Palace,  or  Government 
Building  — General  Castilla’s  Humor  — Decay  of  the  Bull- 
fight  — Cultured  Society  of  the  Capital  — Foreign  Element 
— San  Francisco  Monastery  — Municipal  Progress  — Chamber 
of  Commerce  — A Trip  up  the  Famous  Oroya  Railway  — 
Masterwork  of  Henry  Meiggs  — Heights  and  Distances  — 
Little  Hell  — The  Great  Galera  Tunnel  — Around  Oroya 
— Railroad  to  Cerro  de  Pasco  Mines  — American  Enterprise  in 
the  Heart  of  the  Andes 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  VII 

AREQUIPA  AND  LAKE  TITICACA 

Capital  of  Southern  Peru  — Through  the  Desert  to  the  Coast  — 
Crescent  Sand-hills  — A Mirage  — Down  the  Canon  — Quilca 
as  a Haven  of  Unrest  — Arequipa  Again  — Religious  Institu- 
tions— Prevalence  of  Indian  Race  — Wool  and  Other  In- 
dustries — Harvard  Observatory  — Railroading  over  Volcanic 
Ranges  — Mountain  Sickness  at  High  Crossing  — Branch  Line 
toward  Cuzco  — Inambari  Rubber  Regions  — Puno  on  the  Lake 
Shore 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  REGIONS  AND  THEIR  RESOURCES 

Topography  a Key  to  Economic  Resources — Coast,  Sierra,  and 
Montana — Cotton  in  the  Coast  Zone  — Piura’s  High  Quality 
— Lima  and  Pisco  Product  — Prices  — Increase  Probable  — 
Sugar-cane  as  a Staple  — Probability  of  Growth  — Rice  as  an 
Export  and  an  Import  — Irrigation  Prospects  — Mines  in  the 
Sierra  — Geographical  Distribution  of  the  Deposits  — Live-stock 
on  the  High  Plains — Rubber  in  the  Forest  Region  — Iquitos 
on  the  Amazon  a Smart  Port  — Government  Regulations  for  the 
Gum  Industry 


CHAPTER  IX 

WATERWAYS  AND  RAILWAYS 

Importance  of  River  System  — Existing  Lines  of  Railroads  — Pan- 
American  Links  — Lease  of  State  Roads  to  Peruvian  Corporation 
of  London  — Unfulfilled  Stipulations  — Law  for  Guaranty  of 
Capital  Invested  in  New  Enterprises  — Routes  from  Amazon  to 
the  Pacific  — National  Policy  for  Their  Construction — Central 
Highway,  Callao  to  Iquitos — The  Pichis  — Railroad  and  Navi- 
gation — Surveys  in  Northern  Peru  — Comparative  Distances  — 
Experiences  with  First  Projects — Future  Building  Contempora- 
neous with  Panama  Canal 

CHAPTER  X 

THE  PEOPLE  AND  THEIR  INCREASE 

Density  of  Population  in  Time  of  the  Incas  — Three  Million  In- 
habitants Now  Probable  — Census  of  1876  — Interior  Country 


XIV 


CONTENTS 


Pace 


Not  Sparsely  Populated  — Aboriginal  Indian  Race  and  Mixed 
Blood — Fascinating  History  of  the  Quichuas  — Tribal  Cus- 
toms— Superstition  — Negroes  and  Chinese  Coolies  — Im- 
migration Movements  of  the  Future  — Wages  — European 
Colonization  — Cause  of  Chanchamayo  Valley  Failure  — Cli- 
matic and  Other  Conditions  Favorable  — An  Enthusiast’s  Faith  15 1 

CHAPTER  XI 
Peru’s  growing  stability 

Seeds  of  Revolution  Running  Out  — Educated  Classes  Not  the 
Sole  Conservative  Force  — President  Candamo’s  Peacemaking 
Administration — Crisis  Precipitated  by  his  Death  — Triumph 
of  Civil  Party  in  the  Choice  of  his  Successor  — President 
Pardo’s  Liberal  and  Progressive  Policies  — Growth  in  Popular 
Institutions — Form  of  Peruvian  Constitution  and  Government 
— Attitude  of  the  Church  — Rights  of  Foreigners  — Sources 
of  Revenue  — Stubborn  Adherence  to  Gold  Standard — Inter- 
oceanic  Canal’s  Aid  in  the  National  Development  . . . . 164 

CHAPTER  XII 

ALONG  COAST  TO  MAGELLAN  STRAITS 
Arica,  the  Emerald  Gem  of  the  West  Coast — Memorable  Earth- 
quake History  — A Future  Emporium  of  Commerce  for  the 
Canal — Iquique  the  Nitrate  Port  — Value  of  the  Trade  — 
Antofagasta’s  Copper  Exports  — Caldera  and  the  Trans- 
Andine  Railway  to  Argentina  — Valparaiso’s  Preeminence  among 
Pacific  Ports  — Extensive  Shipping  and  Execrable  Harbor  — 

Plans  for  Improvement  — No  Fear  of  Loss  from  the  Interoceanic 
Waterway — Coal  and  Copper  at  Lota  — Concepcion  and 
Other  Towns  — Rough  Passage  into  the  Straits  — Cape  Pillar 
— Punta  Arenas,  the  Southernmost  Town  of  the  World  — 

Trade  and  Future 180 


CHAPTER  XIII 

LIFE  IN  THE  CHILEAN  CAPITAL 
Railway  along  Aconcagua  River  Valley  — Project  of  Wheelright, 
the  Yankee  — Santiago’s  Craggy  Height  of  Santa  Lucia  — A 
Walk  along  the  Alameda  — Historic  and  Other  Statues  — 
The  Capital  a Fanlike  City  — Public  Edifices  — Dwellings  of 
the  Poor  — Impression  of  the  People  at  the  Celebration  of 


CONTENTS 


XV 

Pack 


Corpus  Christ!  — Some  Notes  on  the  Climate  — Habits  and 
Customs — “The  Morning  for  Sleep” — Independence  of 
Chilean  Women  — Sunday  for  Society  — Fondness  for  Athletic 
Sports — Newspapers  an  Institution  of  the  Country  . . . . 201 

CHAPTER  XIV 

NITRATE  OF  SODA  AN  ALADDIN’s  LAMP 

Extensive  Use  of  Nitrates  as  Fertilizers  — Enormous  Contributions 
to  Chilean  Revenues  — Resume  of  Exportations  — Description 
of  the  Industry  — How  the  Deposits  Lie  — Iodine  a By- 
product— Stock  of  Saltpetre  in  Reserve  — The  Trust  and 
Production  — Estimates  of  Ultimate  Exhaustion — A Third  of 
a Century  More  of  Prosperous  Existence  — Shipments  Not 
Affected  by  Panama  Canal  — Copper  a Source  of  Wealth  — 
Output  in  Northern  Districts  — Further  Development  — Coal 
— Silver  Mines  Productive  in  the  Past — Prospect  of  Future 
Exploitation 217 


CHAPTER  XV 

chile’s  unique  political  history 

National  Life  a Growth — Anarchy  after  Independence — Presi- 
dents Prieto,  Bulnes,  Montt,  Perez  — Constitution  of  1833  — 
Liberal  Modifications  — The  Governing  Groups  — Civil  War 
under  President  Balmaceda  — His  Tragic  End  — Triumph  of 
his  Policies  — Political  System  of  To-day  — Government  by 
the  One  Hundred  Families — Relative  Power  of  the  Executive 
and  the  Congress  — Election  Methods  Illustrated  — Eccle- 
siastical Tendencies  — Proposed  Parliamentary  Reforms  — 
Ministerial  Crises  — Party  Control 232 

CHAPTER  XVI 

PALPITATING  SOCIAL  QUESTIONS 

Existence  of  the  Roto  Discovered — Mob  Rule  in  Valparaiso 

Indian  and  Caucasian  Race  Mixture  — Disquieting  Social 
Phenomena — Grievances  against  the  Church  — Transition  to 
the  Proletariat — Lack  of  Army  and  Navy  Opportunity  — Not 
Unthrifty  as  a Class  — Showings  of  Santiago  Savings  Bank  — 


Excessive  Mortality  — Need  of  State  Sanitation  — Discussion 
of  Economic  Relation  — Changes  in  National  Tendencies  — 
Industrial  Policies  to  Placate  the  Roto 248 


XVI 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  XVII 

chile’s  industrial  future  Page 

Agricultural  Possibilities  of  the  ; Central  Valley  — Its  Extent  — 
Wheat  for  Export  — Timber  Lands  of  the  South  — Wool 
in  the  Magellan  Territory  — Grape  Culture — Mills  and 
Factories  — Public  Works  Policy  — Longitudinal  and  Other 
Railway  Lines  — Drawbacks  in  Government  Ownership  — 
Trans- Andine  Road  — Higher  Levels  of  Foreign  Commerce  — 
Development  of  Shipping  — Population  — Experiments  in 
Colonization  — Internal  and  External  Debt — Gold  Redemption 
Fund  — Final  Word  about  the  Nitrates 262 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

WAYFARING  IN  BOLIVIA THE  ROYAL  ANDES 

Old  Spanish  Trail  from  Argentina  — Customs  Outpost  at  Majo  — 
Sublime  Mountain  View  — Primitive  Native  Life  — Sunbeaten 
Limestone  Hills  — Vale  of  Santa  Rosa  — Tupiza’s  People  and 
Their  Pursuits — Ladies’  Fashions  among  the  Indian  Women 
— Across  the  Chichas  Cordilleras  — Barren  Vegetation  — Ex- 
perience with  Siroche,  or  Mountain  Sickness  — Personal  Dis- 
comforts— Hard  Riding  — Portugalete  Pass — Alpacas  and 
Llamas  — Sierra  of  San  Vicente  — Uyuni  a Dark  Ribbon  on  a 
White  Plain — Mine  Enthusiasts — Foreign  Consulates  . . . 278 

CHAPTER  XIX 

WAYFARING  IN  BOLIVIA THE  CENTRAL  PLATEAU 

A Hill-broken  Table-land — By  Rail  along  the  Cordillera  of  the 
F riars  — Challapata  and  Lake  Poopo  — Smelters  — Spanish 
Ear-marks  in  Oruro  — By  Stage  to  La  Paz  — Fellow'-passengers 
— Misadventures  — Indian  Tombs  at  Caracollo  — Sicasica  a 
High-up  Town,  14,000  Feet — Meeting-place  of  Quichuas  and 
Aymaras  — First  Sight  of  the  Famed  Illimani  Peaks — Char- 
acteristics of  the  Indian  Life  — Responsibility  of  the  Priesthood 
— Position  of  the  Women  — Panorama  of  La  Paz  from  the 
Heights  — The  Capital  in  Fact — Cosmopolitan  Society  . . 297 

CHAPTER  XX 

THE  MEXICO  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 

Depression  and  Revival  of  Mining  Industry  — Bolivia’s  Tin  De- 
posits and  Their  Extension  — Oruro,  Chorolque,  Potosi,  and 


CONTENTS  xvii 

Page 

La  Paz  Districts  — Silver  Regions  — Potosi’s  Output  through 
the  Centuries  — Pulacayo’s  Record  — Mines  at  Great  Heights 

— Trend  of  the  Copper  Veins  — Corocoro  a Lake  Superior 
Region  — Three  Gold  Districts — Bismuth  and  Borax  — Bitu- 
minous Coal  and  Petroleum  — Tropical  Agriculture  — Some 
Rubber  Forests  Left — Coffee  for  Export — Coca  and  Quinine 

— Cotton 313 

CHAPTER  XXI 

BOLIVIAN  NATIONAL  POLICY 

Panama  Canal  as  Outlet  for  Mid-continent  Country — Railways 
for  Internal  Development  — Intercontinental  Backbone  — Pro- 
posed Network  of  Lines  — Use  Made  of  Brazilian  Indemnity 
— Chilean  Construction  from  Arica  — Human  Material  for 
National  Development  — Census  of  1900  — Aymara  Race  — 

Wise  Governmental  Handling  of  Indian  Problems — Immi- 
gration Measures  — Climatic  Variations  — Political  Stability 
— General  Pando’s  Labors — Status  of  Foreigners  — Revenues 
and  Trade  — Commercial  Significance  of  Treaty  with  Chile  — 

Gold  Legislation — A Canal  View 331 

CHAPTER  XXII 

NEW  BASIS  OF  THE  MONROE  DOCTRINE 

John  Quincy  Adams’  Advice  — Canning’s  Trade  Statesmanship 
— Lack  of  Industrial  and  Commercial  Element  — Excess  of 
Benevolent  Impulse  — Forgotten  Chapters  of  the  Doctrine’s 
History  — The  Ecuador  Episode  — President  Roosevelt’s 
Interpretation — Diplomatic  Declarations  — Spectres  of  Terri- 
torial Absorption  — Change  Caused  by  Cuba  — Progress  of 
South  American  Countries  — European  Attitude  on  Economic 
Value  of  Latin  America  — German  and  English  Methods  — 
Proximity  of  Markets  to  United  States  Trade  Centres  — 


Conclusion 351 

APPENDIX  — Hydrographic  Tables  of  Distances  . . . 373 


INDEX 


379 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Page 

A Mountain  Bridge Frontispiece 

Scene  on  the  Chagres  River lo 

Swamp  Section  of  the  Canal lo 

The  Atlantic  Entrance  to  the  Canal lo 

Abandoned  Machinery  — Two  Views i8 

Pineapple  Garden 28 

Banana  Grove 28 

The  De  Lesseps  House,  Colon 44 

Caribbean  Cocoa  Palms 44 

Panama  Natives  from  the  Swamp  Country  ....  50 

Panama  Natives  from  the  Mountains 50 

Ruins  at  Panama  — Two  Views 54 

The  Waterfront  at  Guayaquil 60 

The  Wharf  at  Duran 60 

Weed-killer  Plant,  Guayaquil  and  Quito  Railway  . . 64 

Railway  Spraying  Cart 64 

Cacao  Trees  70 

View  of  Mollendo  Harbor  and  Railway  Yards  ...  86 

Interior  of  Cathedral,  Lima 92 

Church  of  San  Francisco,  Lima 94 

Church  of  San  Augustin,  Lima 94 

Scene  on  the  Oroya  Railway,  Chicla  Station  ...  98 

Scene  on  the  Oroya  Railway,  San  Bartolomew  Switch- 

back  and  Grade 102 


XX 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Page 

Pyramid  of  Junin io6 

Independence  Monument,  Lima io6 

View  of  Arequipa  and  the  Crater  of  El  Misti  . . . 114 

Ruins  of  an  Inca  Fortress  at  Cuzco 120 

A Farmhouse  in  the  Forest  Region 130 

View  of  Oroya,  the  Inter-Andine  Crossroads  . . . 142 

Group  of  Peruvian  Cholos 154 

Portrait  of  Jose  Pardo,  President  of  Peru  . , . . 170 

View  of  Arica 182 

Scene  in  the  Harbor  of  Valparaiso,  showing  the  Arturo 

Prat  Statue igo 

View  of  Talcahuano 194 

Scenes  at  the  Straits  of  Magellan  ; Cape  Pillar,  the 

Evangelist  Islands,  and  Cape  Froward  ....  198 

Scene  on  the  Aconcagua  River 202 

View  of  Los  Andes 210 

The  Roman  Aqueduct  on  Santa  Lucia,  Santiago  . . 214 

Group  of  Araucanian  Indian  Women 250 

“ Christ  of  the  Andes  ” 270 

Sandstone  Pillars  near  Tupiza 286 

Bolivian  Indian  Women  Weaving 292 

Aymara  Indian  Woman  and  Child 292 

Scene  in  the  Plaza  at  Oruro 302 

Ancient  Tombs  at  Caracollo 302 

Primitive  Methods  of  Tin-crushing 302 

A Drove  of  Llamas  on  the  Pampa 306 

View  of  the  Cathedral,  La  Paz 310 

Gathering  Coca  Leaves  in  the  Yungas  — Two  Views  . 328 

Portrait  of  Ismael  Montes,  President  of  Bolivia  . . . 344 


MAPS 

Page 

I.  The  United  States  and  other  American  Countries 

— Transportation  Routes 2 

II.  General  Plan  of  the  Panama  Canal  ....  38 

III.  Peruvian  Waterways  and  Railways  . . . . 138 

IV.  Bolivian  Railway  Routes 334 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


CHAPTER  I 

ECONOMIC  EFFECT  OF  THE  CANAL 

Philosophic  Spanish- American  View  — Henry  Clay's  Mistaken 
Population  Prophecy  — The  Andes  Not  a Canal  Limitation  — 
Intercontinental  Railway  Spurs  — Argentina  and  the  Amazon 
as  Feeders  — Centres  of  Cereal  Production  — Crude  Rubber 
— Atlantic  and  Pacific  Traffic  — Growth  of  W est  Coast 
Commerce  — North  and  South  Trade-wave  — Distances  via 
Panama^  Cape  Horn^  and  the  Straits  of  Magellan  — W ater- 
way  Tolls  and  Coal  Consumption  — Ecuador  and  Peru  — 
Bolivia  and  Chile  — Isthmian  Railroad  Rates  — Value  of 
United  States  Sanitary  Authority  — American  Element  in 
New  Industrial  Life. 

The  effect  of  the  Panama  Canal  on  the  West 
Coast  industrial  development  and  the  reciprocal 
influence  of  this  South  American  progress  on  the  water- 
way are  economic  facts.  The  citizen  of  the  United 
States  who  would  know  the  subject  in  a wider  range 
than  the  mere  gratification  of  his  patriotic  impulses  and 
his  national  pride,  should  turn  to  the  study  of  com- 
mercial geography,  the  potential  political  economy  of 
unexploited  natural  resources.  The  European  states- 
man, jealously  watchful  of  trade  conditions  in  the 
New  World  and  the  causes  which  modify  them,  will 
follow  these  channels  without  suggestion. 


2 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


Whether  the  digging  of  the  Canal  take  ten,  fifteen, 
or  twenty  years,  does  not  affect  its  industrial  value. 
The  Spanish-American,  with  his  inherited  inertia  and 
his  lack  of  initiative,  in  waiting  for  to-morrow  would 
be  content  if  the  work  consumed  half  a century. 
What  Humboldt  prophesied  of  the  Southern  Con- 
tinent as  the  seat  of  future  civilization,  what  Agassiz 
predicted  of  the  Andean  and  the  Amazon  popula- 
tions, he  is  sure  now  will  be  realized.  He  even 
reverts  to  his  favorite  method  of  comparing  the 
square  miles  of  Belgium  with  the  square  miles  of  his 
own  South  American  country,  whichever  one  it  may 
be,  and  exhibits  the  latter’s  possibilities  for  the  human 
race  by  explaining  the  number  of  people  it  can  sus- 
tain when  it  shall  have  as  many  inhabitants  to  the 
square  mile  as  has  Belgium.  Yet  while  he  believes 
that  the  destiny  of  the  Southern  Continent  is  at 
the  threshold  of  realization,  Yankee  impatience  only 
would  amuse  him.  Since  the  interoceanic  waterway 
and  all  its  benefits  are  to  be,  what  matter  a few  years  ? 
Time,  says  the  Castilian  proverb,  is  the  element. 
This  philosophic  Latin  view  may  serve  as  a curb  to 
fault-finding  if  the  construction  work  on  the  Canal 
seems  to  halt  while  the  engineering  obstacles  are 
studied  and  experiments  are  made  in  order  to  deter- 
mine the  best  means  to  overcome  them. 

But  though  the  Spanish-American,  who  is  of  the 
race  that  controls  the  West  Coast  countries  of  South 
America,  is  patient  in  his  waiting  for  ultimate  results, 
he  does  not  fail  to  grasp  the  immediate  effect.  All 
the  processes  of  the  economic  evolution  unroll  before 
his  mental  vision.  For  Colombia,  Ecuador,  Peru, 
Chile,  and  Bolivia,  the  standard  already  has  been  set. 


fid? 


ECONOMIC  EFFECT 


3 


and  the  goal  towards  which  they  must  work  has  been 
fixed.  Their  national  policies  and  their  commercial 
and  industrial  growth  at  once  come  under  the  stimulus 
of  the  waterway.  “ The  Panama  Canal,”  said  the 
leader  of  public  thought  in  one  of  the  Republics, 
“ will  precipitate  our  commercial  evolution.”  It  is 
the  spring  from  which  will  gush  the  streams  of 
immigration. 

In  the  present  volume  I shall  have  little  to  say  of 
Colombia,  for  though  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  is  the 
reception-room  of  that  country,  the  Canal  is  to  be 
considered  jointly  with  relation  to  the  Caribbean  and 
the  Pacific  shores.  I include  Bolivia  because,  while 
as  a political  division  it  is  not  ocean-bordering,  geo- 
graphically it  is  a Pacific  coast  country  on  account  of 
its  outlet  through  Chilean  and  Peruvian  seaports. 

Population  in  South  America  is  not  marked  by 
periods  of  phenomenal  increase.  Henry  Clay,  in  his 
generous  pleas  for  the  recognition  of  the  struggling 
Republics,  was  led  in  the  warmth  of  his  imagination 
to  foresee  the  day  when  they  would  have  72,000,000 
and  we  would  have  40,000,000  inhabitants.  The 
population  of  the  United  States  was  then  less  than 
10,000,000.  Clay  spoke  when  the  resources  of  the 
Louisiana  Purchase  were  still  distrusted  by  many  con- 
servative public  men,  and  long  before  Daniel  Webster 
had  delivered  his  celebrated  philippic  against  the  Ore- 
gon region  as  a worthless  area  of  deserts  and  shifting 
sands.  Mindful  of  the  slow  growth  in  the  Southern 
Hemisphere,  I make  no  predictions  of  sudden  leaps, 
but  merely  seek  to  indicate  what  proportion  of  the 
present  and  future  inhabitants  comes  within  the  sphere 
of  the  Canal. 


4 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


The  population  of  western  Colombia  and  of 
Ecuador,  Peru,  Chile,  and  Bolivia  is  approximately 
11,000,000,  dwelling  chiefly  along  the  seacoast.  It 
has  been  assumed  that  only  this  long  slope  of  almost 
continuous  mountain  wall  from  Panama  to  Patagonia 
is  subject  to  the  direct  influence  of  the  Canal,  and 
that  the  barrier  of  the  Andes  makes  all  the  rest  of  the 
South  American  continent  dependent  on  Atlantic  out- 
lets. The  assumption  is  presumptuous.  It  is  based 
on  an  unflattering  lack  of  geographical  knowledge 
and  on  a complete  ignorance  of  political  and  economic 
conditions. 

The  primary  mistake  is  in  considering  the  Coast 
Cordilleras  as  the  principal  chain.  The  great  rampart 
of  the  Andes  in  places  is  hundreds  of  miles  across. 
Productive  plains  and  fertile  valleys  lie  on  the  western 
side  of  the  Continental  Divide  as  well  as  on  the  Atlan- 
tic slope.  Besides,  there  are  many  bifurcations  of 
these  lofty  ranges  which  must  be  pierced  toward  the 
Pacific.  The  mineral  belt  with  its  incalculable  wealth, 
after  centuries  only  partially  exploited,  has  its  basis 
of  profitable  production  and  export  by  means  of  the 
water  transport  of  the  Pacific.  And  greatest  of  all  the 
facts  is  the  certainty  that  railways  will  bore  through 
the  granite  ramparts  in  a westerly  direction.  The 
central  spine  or  backbone  of  the  Intercontinental  or 
Pan-American  trunk  line  is  not  all  a dream,  and  from 
its  links  spurs  will  shoot  out  toward  the  Pacific.  It 
would  have  been  as  reasonable  to  imagine  that  the 
Rocky  Mountains  could  forever  shut  in  the  region 
between  them  and  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  barring  all 
outlet  to  the  Atlantic  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  as  to 
suppose  that  the  Pacific  Ocean  from  Panama  south  is 


ECONOMIC  EFFECT 


everlastingly  restricted  to  the  fringe  of  coast  for  its 
commerce.  This  is  in  the  industrial  sense  and  aside 
from  the  reasons  of  national  polity  which  by  railway 
enterprises  on  the  part  of  the  various  governments 
are  causing  the  Andes  to  disappear. 

The  grain  fields  and  pastures  of  Argentina  lie  close 
to  the  Pacific.  How  close  ? Within  less  than  aoo 
miles.  The  pampas  of  the  western  and  northwestern 
provinces  are  from  500  to  1,200  miles  distant  from  the 
Atlantic  seaboard.  The  pressure  of  the  agricultural 
population  is  westward.  A generation  — perhaps  a 
decade  — will  bring  it  to  the  slopes  of  the  Andes. 
The  first  railway  to  join  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific, 
that  from  Buenos  Ayres  to  Valparaiso,  will  be  com- 
pleted by  means  of  a spiral  tunnel  long  before  vessels 
are  propelled  through  the  Canal. 

But  Valparaiso  is  far  south,  so  far  that,  in  the  opin- 
ion of  some  authorities,  it  is  the  limit  of  the  Canal 
radius.  Let  this  be  granted  momentarily  while  the 
map  is  scanned.  Place  the  thumb  on  the  Chilean  port 
of  Caldera,  400  miles  north  of  Valparaiso  ; the  index 
finger  on  Tucuman,  and  the  middle  finger  on  Cor- 
doba. The  lines  forking  from  these  Argentine  cities 
forecast  the  next  chapter  of  railway  expansion.  Let 
it  be  known  also  that  Nature,  in  kindly  mood,  has 
formed  a saddle  in  the  mountain  range  in  this  section, 
and  that  engineering  surveys  of  routes  through  the 
depression  are  the  basis  of  projects  which  only  await 
a larger  agricultural  area  under  cultivation  in  order  to 
become  railway  enterprises  with  an  assured  commer- 
cial basis.  Both  Cordoba  and  Tucuman  will  be  in  rail 
communication  with  the  Pacific  coast  some  years  be- 
fore the  waterway  is  finished.  Nor  are  these  the  only 


6 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


trans-Andine  lines  in  prospect.  They  serve  the  pur- 
poses of  illustration,  so  that  a description  of  the  others 
may  be  omitted.  I cite  the  first  two  in  order  that  it 
may  be  known  there  is  an  Argentine  relation  to  the 
Canal,  and  a highly  important  one  as  to  population 
and  as  to  the  exports  and  imports  which  are  the 
foundation  of  maritime  and  rail  traffic. 

If  this  suggestion  is  new  and  strange,  I follow  it  by 
a more  startling  proposition.  As  one  result  of  the 
Panama  Canal,  a measure  of  Amazonian  commerce 
will  flow  to  and  from  the  Pacific. 

To  begin  with,  there  is  the  nearness.  By  several 
trans-Andine  routes  the  navigable  affluents  of  the  Ama- 
zon are  less  than  300  miles  from  the  coast.  Steam- 
ships of  800  tons  navigate  as  far  as  Yurimaguas  on 
the  Huallaga  River,  which  was  the  historic  route  of 
the  Spaniards  over  the  Continental  Divide.  Steam 
vessels  also  go  up  the  Maranon  from  Iquitos,  425  miles 
to  the  Falls  of  Manserriche,  which  by  several  practi- 
cable railway  routes  are  within  less  than  400  miles  of 
the  Bay  of  Paita.  Minor  Peruvian  ports  below  Paita 
are  able  to  offset  its  shipping  advantages  by  shorter 
trails.  Not  more  than  225  miles  of  difficult  railway 
construction  are  necessary  to  open  to  a large  section 
of  the  vast  Amazon  region  the  commerce  of  Callao, 
Peru’s  chief  port. 

In  relation  to  the  Amazon  as  a feeder,  it  has  to  be 
recognized  that  the  Andes  form  a greater  obstacle  than 
in  Argentina,  and  that  the  river  basins  will  be  popu- 
lated much  more  slowly  and  never  so  densely  as  the 
Argentine  pampas  and  sierras.  But  the  mighty  stream 
is  within  the  sphere  of  the  Canal,  as  I shall  have  oc- 
casion to  explain  more  fully  in  subsequent  chapters. 


ECONOMIC  EFFECT 


7 


For  the  present  purpose  a single  illustration,  perhaps 
fanciful,  will  answer. 

It  may  seem  a far  cry  from  the  200,000  telephones 
used  by  the  farmers  of  Indiana,  the  trolleys  which 
tangle  their  way  through  that  State,  and  the  automo- 
biles and  bicycles  which  traverse  the  country  roads,  to 
the  gum  forests  of  South  America.  But  the  world’s 
hunger  for  crude  rubber  is  a growing  one.  Bicycles, 
the  infinite  variety  of  motors,  electric  lighting,  and 
telephones,  all  demand  more  of  this  article ; and  the 
55,000  tons,  which  was  substantially  the  world’s  pro- 
duction in  1905,  is  insufficient  for  future  needs.  This 
increasing  demartd  will  stimulate  the  rubber  production 
of  an  extensive  region  in  northeastern  Peru,  and  Peru 
has  imperative  reasons  of  national  policy  for  wanting 
to  turn  that  traffic  down  her  own  rivers,  and  across  and 
over  the  Andes  to  the  Pacific,  instead  of  letting  it  flow 
out  through  Brazilian  territory.  Iquitos,  the  centre  of 
this  commerce,  is  2,300  miles  up  the  Amazon  from 
Para,  and  Para  is  3,000  miles  from  New  York,  a total 
of  5,300  miles  by  the  all-water  route.  By  river  and 
future  rail  Iquitos  is,  at  the  furthest,  800  miles  from 
Paita,  and  Paita,  via  Panama,  is  a little  short  of  3,100 
miles  from  New  York  ; so  that  the  total  distance  is  less 
than  4,000  miles.  New  Orleans  by  the  isthmian  route 
is  within  3,300  miles  of  the  Peruvian  rubber  metropolis. 

Instead  of  the  Pacific  commerce  being  limited  to 
the  seashore  strip  after  the  Panama  Canal  is  dug,  the 
view  which  receives  attention  in  South  America  is  the 
probable  influence  of  the  waterway  in  diverting  traffic 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  Trade  may  not  be 
turned  upstream,  and  commerce  is  slow  to  leave  estab- 
lished lines  of  transportation,  but  trade-waves  are  not 


8 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


so  fixed  as  isothermal  lines.  They  may  show  varia- 
tions until  the  current  finds  its  natural  course  to  the 
newer  markets  created. 

I do  not  mean  from  this  to  infer  that  the  aggregate 
commerce  of  the  Atlantic  coast  countries  of  South 
America  will  be  lessened  by  the  Panama  Canal.  Tropi- 
cal Brazil,  for  an  indefinite  period,  will  continue  to 
supply  the  bulk  of  the  coffee  consumed,  and  the  mari- 
time movement  will  follow  the  existing  courses  of 
navigation.  Temperate  Brazil,  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic, and  Uruguay  will  develop  as  the  granary  and  the 
grazing-ground  of  the  world  in  proportion  as  the 
United  States  consumes  its  own  wheat  and  beef.  Their 
exports  increase  with  the  widening  of  the  market  for 
these  staple  products.  Political  economists  and  crop 
statisticians  have  been  slow  to  perceive  that  the  exten- 
sion of  the  area  of  agricultural  cultivation  and  the 
growth  of  population  in  this  great  cereal  region  de- 
pend more  on  the  ability  of  Europe  to  take  the  sur- 
plus grain,  beef,  and  mutton  than  on  the  demands  for 
home  consumption.  Public  men,  especially  in  the 
Argentine  Republic,  in  their  measures  for  encouraging 
immigration  also  have  neglected  to  take  into  account 
this  overshadowing  economic  factor.  But  it  explains 
why  during  certain  periods  immigration  has  been  al- 
most stationary,  while  at  other  periods  the  incoming  of 
settlers  for  the  field  and  farm  has  been  a rushing  one. 
As  a natural  balance,  therefore,  for  the  diversion  of 
traffic  to  the  Pacific  coast  through  the  agency  of  the 
artificial  waterway,  the  Atlantic  slope  has  the  certainty 
of  steadily  growing  exports  of  agricultural  products. 

As  regards  Argentina,  the  coming  railways  to  the 
Pacific,  of  which  I have  made  mention,  mean  that  a 


ECONOMIC  EFFECT 


9 


quantity  of  the  cereals,  wool,  and  hides  will  find  their 
outlet  by  these  routes  ; and  a larger  volume  of  the  ex- 
change for  them  — farm  tools,  cottons  and  woollens, 
mineral  oils,  and  miscellaneous  merchandise — will  ob- 
tain the  cheaper  and  shorter  transit  through  the  Canal 
and  down  the  West  Coast.  Thus,  without  damage  to 
the  Atlantic  commerce,  the  Pacific  coast  traffic  will 
form  a larger  proportion  in  the  total  of  South  Ameri- 
can commerce  than  in  the  past.  This  is  especially 
true  with  reference  to  the  United  States.  The  trade- 
wave  north  and  south  may  be  accounted  one  of  the 
phenomena  of  international  intercourse.  It  is  not 
tidal,  but  a brief  comparison  shows  its  growing  vol- 
ume. In  1894  Argentina  took  from  the  United  States 
goods  to  the  value  of  ^4,863,000,  and  sent  in  return 
products  worth  I3, 497, 000.  In  1904  the  exports  were 
$10,751,000,  and  the  imports  $20,702,000,  and  in  the 
following  year  they  were  increasing. 

The  commercial  relation  of  the  West  Coast  coun- 
tries may  better  be  exhibited  by  tabulation  in  the 
following  form  : 


Exports  to  United  States  i 

Imports  from  United  States 

1894 

1904 

1894 

1904 

Chile  . . . 

$3,536,000 

$10,685,000 

$2,272,000 

$4,880,000 

Peru  . . . 

491,000 

3,008,000 

591,000 

3,961,000 

Ecuador  . . 

816,000 

2,347,000 

761,000 

1,354,000 

Total  . . 

$4,843,000 

$16,040,000 

$3,624,000 

$10,195,000 

1 See  Foreign  Commerce  of  the  United  States,  Annual  Review,  igo4. 


10 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


Here,  within  the  extremes  of  the  eleven  years,  is  an 
increase  in  the  foreign  commerce  between  the  West 
Coast  countries  named  and  the  United  States  from 
^8,467,000  to  ^26, 23 5,000  as  measured  by  the  annual 
volume.  The  growth  continued  in  the  subsequent 
twelvemonth.  It  is  a forcible  illustration  of  the  north 
and  south  trade-wave  movement.  Under  the  further 
stimulus  of  the  Canal  for  industrial  development  and 
commercial  growth  the  contribution  to  traffic  for  the 
waterway  will  be  not  inconsiderable. 

An  analysis  of  the  West  Coast  foreign  commerce 
for  a given  year  shows  it  to  have  exceeded  |2 1 1 ,000,00c, 
with  a rising  tendency.  The  intercoast  trade,  which 
is  included  under  the  foreign  head,  may  be  placed  at 
$11,000,000  to  $12,000,000.  There  is  left,  therefore, 
approximately  $200,000,000  of  international  traffic  for 
Europe  and  the  United  States. 

If  the  international  traffic  were  to  remain  station- 
ary, the  amount  that  would  be  diverted  from  the  Cape 
Horn  or  the  Magellan  route  through  the  Canal  would 
be  important,  but  the  overshadowing  element  in  the 
waterway  as  an  economic  factor  is  the  certainty  of  an 
increase  in  the  foreign  trade.  The  marked  feature  of 
the  West  Coast  countries  in  recent  years  is  the  growth 
in  consumptive  capacity  as  shown  by  the  imports,  for 
the  increase  in  population  has  not  been  large.  Orien- 
tal trade  may  be  diverted  from  other  channels  through 
the  Canal,  but  western  South  American  commerce  may 
look  for  growth  in  volume  on  account  of  internal  de- 
velopment of  the  countries  which  are  tributary  to  it. 
In  this  view  it  may  be  doubted  whether  the  estimate 
that  75  per  cent  of  the  Canal  traffic  will  be  between 
ports  north  of  the  same  parallels  of  latitude  will  prove 


Swamp  Section  of  the  Canal  — The  Atlantic  Entrance  to 
THE  Canal  — Scene  on  the  Chagres  River 


ECONOMIC  EFFECT 


11 


correct.  The  north  and  south  trade-waves  may  be 
watched  for  an  indication  of  the  proportion  of  water- 
way freight  that  will  go  south,  keeping  in  mind  that 
New  York  is  almost  on  a direct  line  north  of  the 
western  South  American  ports. 

These  West  Coast  markets  may  be  studied  with  ref- 
erence to  the  shortening  of  distance.  We  may  take 
the  fact  that  from  Colon  to  New  York  is  1,981  miles, 
and  from  Colon  to  New  Orleans  1,380  miles  ; add  the 
48  miles  of  future  waterway  and  then  make  our  com- 
parisons of  the  ports  along  the  coast  — Guayaquil, 
Callao,  Valparaiso  — with  the  distance  through  the 
Straits  of  Magellan  or  around  Cape  Horn.  We 
also  may  figure  on  the  national  policy  of  the  United 
States,  which  will  not  be  to  treat  the  Canal  as  strictly  a 
commercial  proposition.  The  fixing  of  the  toll  rates 
is  not  near  enough  to  furnish  the  basis  of  definite 
calculation  any  more  than  is  the  possibility  of  estimat- 
ing the  total  prospective  tonnage  each  year,  though 
the  guesses  have  ranged  from  300,000  to  10,500,000 
tons. 

The  steamers  which  ply  between  New  York,  Ham- 
burg, or  Liverpool  and  the  Pacific  coast  ports  vary 
from  3,000  to  6,500  tons.  That  hardly  may  be  taken 
as  the  measure  of  carrying  capacity  of  the  major  part 
of  the  vessels  which  will  pass  through  the  Canal,  but 
on  such  a basis  the  estimate  may  be  made  of  the  sav- 
ing in  coal  consumption,  and  the  radius  within  which 
it  will  be  cheaper  to  use  the  Canal  than  to  double 
Cape  Horn  or  thread  the  difficult  and  dangerous  pas- 
sage through  the  Straits.  For  New  Orleans,  Mobile, 
and  the  other  Gulf  ports,  the  element  of  distance  is 
not  comparative,  because  heretofore  no  direct  maritime 


12 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


movement  between  them  and  the  West  Coast  of  South 


America  has  been  maintained.  With  the  waterway 
once  open  the  whole  Mississippi  Valley  becomes  the 
beneficiary.  Nor  does  the  talk  of  carrying  coal  and 
other  cargoes  from  Pittsburg  through  Panama  to 
Patagonia  without  breaking  bulk  appear  fantastic. 

Variations  in  the  steamers’  courses  are  responsible 
for  the  differences  in  the  tables  of  distances  usually 
given,  but  they  are  not  important.^  The  relation  in 
nautical  miles  of  the  chief  shipping-ports  on  the  West 


Coast  to  trade  centres 

may 

MlI.ES 

be  set  forth  as  follows : 

Miles 

New  York  to  Colon  . . . 

1,981 

Panama  to  Mollendo  . . 

. 1,928 

Colon  to  Panama  .... 

48 

“ “ Arica  . . . . 

. 2,161 

Panama  to  Guayaquil  . . . 

835 

“ “ Iquique  . . . 

. 2,267 

“ “ Paita 

1,052 

“ “ Antofagasta 

. 2,418 

“ “ Callao  .... 

1,569 

“ “ Valparaiso  . . 

. 3,076 

This  brings  Valparaiso  within  5,100  miles  of  New 
York  by  way  of  Panama  ; but  with  the  omission  of  all 
the  intervening  ports  except  Iquique,  Callao,  and 
Guayaquil,  it  would  be  less  than  5,000  miles.  By 
way  of  the  Straits  the  distance  from  Valparaiso  is 
usually  accounted  9,000  miles,  touching  at  Monte- 
video and  the  Brazilian  ports.  When  the  Straits  are 
avoided  and  Cape  Horn  is  doubled,  from  the  Cape  to 
Pernambuco  is  3,468  miles,  and  from  Pernambuco  to 
New  York  3,696  miles.  Either  by  the  Straits  or 
around  the  Cape  the  total  is  almost  twice  the  distance 
via  Panama. 

Colon  is  4,720  miles  from  Liverpool,  and  the  rela- 
tive advantages  of  the  West  Coast  ports  between 
Valparaiso  and  Panama  may  be  calculated  in  the 

1 See  Appendix  for  tables  of  the  Hydrographic  Office  of  the  United 
States  Navy. 


ECONOMIC  EFFECT 


13 


proportion  of  their  respective  distances.  From  Valpa- 
raiso to  Liverpool  via  Panama  is  7,600  to  7,800  miles 
according  to  the  vessel’s  schedule  of  wayports  on  the 
Pacific.  From  Valparaiso  to  Liverpool,  through  the 
Straits  of  Magellan,  is  9,800  miles,  touching  at 
the  Falkland  Islands,  and  about  300  miles  shorter 
by  omitting  them. 

For  Hamburg  the  saving  in  distance  by  the  isthmian 
route  may  be  placed  at  2,400  miles.  Proceeding  north 
from  Valparaiso,  the  loss  by  Cape  Horn  is  in  inverse 
proportion.  Fifteen  hundred  miles  north  of  Valpa- 
raiso is  the  central  Peruvian  port  of  Callao,  which 
therefore  has  3,000  miles’  gain  in  distance  by  Panama 
to  Hamburg  instead  of  by  Cape  Horn. 

I have  given  these  general  figures  before  reciting 
details  on  the  maritime  commerce  of  the  various  coun- 
tries. They  show  how  the  economic  value  of  the 
Canal  to  them  is  primarily  a question  of  subtraction, 
— the  difference  between  the  coal  needed  on  the 
longer  sea  voyage  and  the  Canal  tolls.  But  the  ques- 
tion of  the  return  cargo  also  enters  into  the  calculation 
and  is  distinctly  in  favor  of  the  waterway,  as  is  also 
that  of  the  duration  of  maritime  insurance. 

No  statistics  are  available  which  show  the  commerce 
of  the  western  departments  of  Colombia ; and  the  un- 
settled state  of  that  country  for  years  past  gives  no 
index  of  what  its  potential  traffic  may  be.  But  the 
valley  of  Cauca  in  its  variety  of  agricultural  and  min- 
eral resources  is  a kingdom  in  itself.  It  is  a future 
commercial  feeder  to  the  Canal. 

The  foreign  trade  of  Ecuador  amounted  in  the  latest 
available  year  to  $1^,000,000}  Substantially  all  of  it 

1 Statistics  obtained  by  New  York  Chamber  of  Commerce  for  1904. 


14 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


constitutes  what  might  be  called  light  freight,  and  a part 
of  it  now  goes  across  the  Isthmus  by  transshipment. 
Yet  the  portion  which  follows  the  longer  route  around 
Cape  Horn  or  through  the  Straits  is  not  small.  The 
traffic  flows  through  Guayaquil  as  in  a single  stream. 
Guayaquil,  by  way  of  Panama,  is  2,864  miles  from  New 
York  and  2,263  miles  from  New  Orleans;  by  the 
Cape  Horn  route  it  is  11,470  miles  to  New  York. 
The  entire  foreign  commerce  of  Ecuador  in  the  future 
is  for  the  Panama  Canal,  except  the  excess  which  fol- 
lows up  the  coast  to  San  Francisco  and  beyond. 

The  foreign  commerce  of  Peru  may  be  placed 
above  $40,000,000  annually.^  The  bulk  of  the  traffic 
is  now  via  the  Straits  of  Magellan  and  Cape  Horn. 
From  Callao  to  New  York,  by  way  of  Cape  Horn,  is 
10,700  miles.  By  way  of  Panama  it  is  3,600  miles, 
only  a little  longer  than  from  New  York  to  San  Fran- 
cisco or  from  New  York  to  Mexico  City  by  the  trans- 
continental railroad  lines.  In  reference  to  Peru,  it 
also  is  to  be  noted  that  the  heaviest  exports  are  from 
the  ports  north  of  Callao.  Sugar  is  the  largest  marine 
freight  in  quantity,  and  this  comes  from  Salaverry  and 
other  ports  fully  500  miles  north.  Much  of  this  raw 
sugar  is  now  carried  around  Cape  Horn,  though  some 
of  it  is  left  at  the  Chilean  ports  to  be  refined  for  the 
West  Coast  consumption.  When  the  Canal  is  opened, 
with  the  exception  of  this  Chilean  traffic,  all  the  raw 
sugar  of  Peru  will  be  shipped  through  it  to  New 
Orleans,  New  York,  or  Liverpool. 

Through  the  port  of  Mollendo,  360  miles  south 
of  Callao,  come  the  ores,  the  metals,  and  the  wools, 

1 Estimated  on  the  basis  of  the  calendar  year  1904,  when  the  total 
was  $41,000,000,  according  to  the  report  of  the  British  Consul  General. 


ECONOMIC  EFFECT 


15 


both  of  southern  Peru  and  of  Bolivia.  Some  of  the 
minerals  may  continue  their  course  around  the  Horn, 
and  also  the  guano  which  Peru  in  the  future  may 
export,  but  not  all  of  these  cargoes  will  find  the  longer 
route  cheaper.  All  the  wools  will  take  the  shorter 
route.  Some  wool  is  sent  up  the  coast  and  trans- 
shipped across  the  Isthmus  by  the  railways.  This 
method  is  also  followed  in  the  shipment  to  Liverpool 
of  some  of  the  raw  cotton  raised  in  southern  Peru. 
The  whole  of  this  light  freight  is  traffic  for  the  inter- 
oceanic  waterway. 

Bolivian  commerce  finds  its  outlet  and  inlet,  chiefly 
through  Chilean  and  Peruvian  seaports,  to  the  amount 
of  1 1 8,000,000  a year.  Small  as  this  is,  the  bulk  of 
it  follows  the  Cape  Horn  and  Magellan  routes,  though 
some  of  the  European  merchandise  is  imported  on  the 
Atlantic  slope  through  Argentina.  The  silver  and 
copper  ores  are  transported  principally  through  the 
port  of  Antofagasta,  which  is  650  miles  north  of  Val- 
paraiso. For  the  mineral  freights.  Canal  tolls  may 
neutralize  the  advantage  of  the  shortened  distance  via 
Panama  to  Liverpool,  or  may  not  compensate  for  the 
lessened  coal  consumption.  But  whether  they  do  or 
not,  the  general  merchandise  from  England  and  from 
Germany,  not  being  bulky,  will  have  the  shorter  course 
and  probably  the  cheaper  one  on  the  return  voyage 
through  the  Canal. 

But  Antofagasta,  though  of  growing  importance, 
is  not  likely  to  be  indefinitely  the  chief  port  of  export 
for  Bolivia.  The  building  of  a railway  from  the  great 
central  plateau  to  Arica  makes  it  certain  that  the 
copper  output  of  Bolivia,  much  of  the  tin,  and  part  of 
the  silver  product  in  time  will  be  shipped  through 


16 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


that  port,  while  it  will  be  a natural  inlet  for  imported 
merchandise.  Arica  is  so  close  to  Mollendo  — only 
233  miles  — that  with  regard  to  distances  it  may  be 
considered  on  the  same  basis.  The  mineral  and  other 
internal  developments,  which  are  to  fix  the  industrial 
status  of  Bolivia  and  which  I shall  have  occasion  to 
discuss  in  subsequent  chapters,  have  a very  direct 
relation  to  the  facilities  that  will  be  afforded  by  the 
isthmian  waterway. 

Formerly  it  was  thought  that  Chile  would  be 
seriously  harmed  by  the  Panama  Canal.  In  the  com- 
mercial sense  this  supposition  does  not  bear  scrutiny. 
Chile’s  foreign  trade  is  approximately  ^130,000,000 
annually,  with  a tendency  to  reach  $1  ^0,000,000.  By 
far  the  heaviest  proportion  of  this  commerce  is  the 
shipments  of  the  nitrates  of  soda  or  saltpetre  fertilizers. 
Iquique  is  the  principal  shipping-point.  The  sailing- 
ships  are  the  cheapest  carriers  for  these  bulky  cargoes, 
and  tolls  based  on  tonnage  may  make  it  unprofitable 
to  transport  a large  portion  of  them  through  the 
interoceanic  channel.  There  is  also  the  other  con- 
sideration that  the  vessels  which  bring  coal  to  the 
Chilean  ports  from  Australia  and  from  Newcastle 
secure  their  return  cargoes  of  nitrates.  These  fer- 
tilizers being  a natural  monopoly,  Chile  will  have 
the  benefit  of  the  industry,  and  the  Panama  Canal 
in  no  way  can  lessen  this  traffic.  In  its  permanent 
effect  the  waterway  can  have  little  influence  on  the 
nitrates,  because  the  deposits  will  be  worked  out 
not  many  years  after  its  completion.  Within  a third 
of  a century,  or  forty  years  at  the  furthest,  the 
exhaustion  of  the  saltpetre  beds  will  have  begun, 
and  the  cargoes  of  fertilizers  will  be  lessening  before 


ECONOMIC  EFFECT 


17 


that  time.^  In  any  aspect  of  the  broad  future  of 
the  Canal  and  its  effect  on  the  West  Coast,  the 
nitrates  of  Chile  need  not  be  considered  as  an  in- 
fluencing factor. 

But  it  may  be  said  that  until  the  interoceanic  canal 
is  actually  open  these  subjects  are  too  remote  to  call 
for  immediate  consideration.  This  view  does  not  hold 
when  analysis  is  made  of  the  swift  recognition  of  its 
effect  by  South  American  countries.  There  are  present- 
day  influences  which  are  clear  enough  to  be  taken  into 
account. 

For  the  entire  West  Coast  there  is  at  once  a bene- 
ficial result  in  having  the  Canal  an  enterprise  of  the 
United  States  government.  This  is  the  equal  treat- 
ment which  must  be  accorded  all  the  steamship 
companies  in  transshipping  freight  over  the  Panama 
Railway.  The  line  was  operated  in  the  interest  of 
the  transcontinental  railroads  to  prevent  competition. 
Under  this  arrangement  little  regard  was  shown  for  the 
traffic  from  the  coast  south  of  Panama.  The  result  of 
the  control  of  the  isthmian  railway  line  by  the  transcon- 
tinental roads  was  against  encouraging  the  steamship 
lines  to  seek  to  increase  their  freight  between  Val- 
paraiso and  the  intervening  ports  to  Panama  for  trans- 
shipment, because  the  Panama  Railway  exacted  what 
it  pleased.^  With  the  stock  of  the  company  vested  in 

1 See  Chapter  XIV,  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

2 In  the  memorial  presented  in  1905  to  the  United  States  government  by 
the  diplomatic  representatives  of  various  South  American  Republics,  asking 
for  fair  treatment  in  Panama  railroad  rates,  these  statements  were  made  : 

It  may  be  calculated  that  the  most  distant  ports  of  our  respective  Re- 
publics are  from  New  York,  4,500  miles,  via  Panama.  From  those  same 
ports  to  New  York  there  is  a distance  of  over  11,000  miles,  via  Magel- 
lan ; and,  nevertheless,  the  transportation  by  this  last  route  and  the  trans- 


18 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


the  United  States,  hereafter  all  traffic  agreements  must 
be  made  on  the  basis  of  equality.  This  is  a very 
important  factor  in  the  tendency  of  the  West  Coast 
countries  to  mould  their  national  policies  for  indus- 
trial development  and  commercial  expansion.  It  en- 
ables them  to  enjoy  some  of  the  benefits  of  the  Canal 
without  waiting  for  its  completion.  It  means  more 
shipping  from  the  year  1906  on. 

An  international  good  also  comes  from  the  presence 
of  the  United  States  on  the  Isthmus  in  the  capacity  of 
a sanitary  authority.  It  will  not  be  hampered,  as  at 
home,  by  state  quarantine  systems.  The  example  of 
what  it  is  doing  at  Panama  will  be  of  immense  benefit 
to  all  the  ports  south  to  Valparaiso.  Its  resources 
and  its  assistance  will  be  at  the  disposal  of  the  various 
governments  which  may  seek  its  aid.  With  them  power 
is  centralized,  and  they  will  be  able  to  cooperate  effect- 
ually. The  International  Sanitary  Bureau,  with  head- 
quarters in  Washington,  for  which  provision  was  made 
by  the  Pan-American  Conference  held  in  Mexico,  may 

portation  by  steamer  from  our  ports  to  Europe,  are  on  an  average  from  25 
to  30  per  cent  cheaper  than  our  commerce  with  New  York  via  Panama. 

The  Peruvian  sugar  pays,  by  the  Isthmus,  30  shillings  sterling  a ton, 
and  23  shillings  sterling  a ton  via  Magellan. 

The  cacao  of  Guayaquil,  via  Panama,  pays  to  Europe  from  52  to  58 
shillings  a ton,  and  to  New  York  65  to  68  shillings  a ton. 

From  Hamburg  shipments  of  rice  from  India  are  constantly  being 
made  to  Ecuador,  via  Panama,  at  the  rate  of  from  30  to  33  shillings 
sterling  per  ton  of  2,240  pounds,  or,  say,  from  $7.50  to  $S  per  ton; 
while  the  same  article  from  New  York  pays  at  the  rate  of  $0.60  per  100 
pounds,  or,  say,  J13.20  per  ton,  — an  overcharge  of  almost  75  per  cent. 
Twelve  coal-oil  stoves,  which  in  New  York,  free-on-board,  cost  from 
J45  to  J48,  pay  on  the  coast  of  Ecuador  and  of  Peru  30  and  ,37>^ 
cents,  respectively,  per  cubic  foot,  or,  say,  to  $11,  which  repre- 

sents 42.66  percent  upon  the  cost  price.  The  same  article  bought  in 
Germany  would  pay  a freight  of  from  ^6.40  to 


Abandoned  Machinery 


ECONOMIC  EFFECT 


19 


become  a vital  force  through  this  means.  Epidemics 
and  plagues,  of  which  the  most  malignant  is  the  yellow 
fever,  may  never  be  entirely  wiped  out,  but  that  their 
area  can  be  restricted  and  their  ravages  infinitely  les- 
sened will  be  demonstrated  by  a few  years’  experience. 
Commerce  will  be  immensely  the  gainer,  and  the  trade 
of  the  West  Coast  may  look  for  a steady  and  natural 
growth  in  proportion  as  the  epidemic  diseases  of  the 
seaports  are  controlled. 

The  influence  of  the  gold  standard  of  Panama  will 
be  helpful  to  commerce,  though  it  will  not  in  itself 
cause  the  several  Republics  which  are  on  a silver  or 
a paper  basis  to  change  to  gold.  But  they  will  be 
benefited  by  being  neighbors  to  financial  stability. 
Uniformity  of  exchange  will  be  promoted,  and  the 
inconveniences  of  travellers  will  be  lessened.  The 
fact  that  the  currency  of  the  United  States  is  legal 
tender  in  the  Panama  Republic  will  help  merchants 
and  shippers  at  home,  who  heretofore  have  had  to 
make  their  transactions  entirely  on  the  basis  of  the 
English  pound  sterling  or  the  French  franc. 

In  an  outline  of  the  general  subject  some  attention 
should  be  paid  to  the  inevitable  overflow  of  energy 
and  capital  after  they  once  become  engaged  in  build- 
ing the  waterway  and  in  supplementary  projects.  No 
one  who  understands  the  constructive  American  char- 
acter doubts  that  the  capitalists  and  contractors  en- 
listed in  the  work  will  fare  forth  to  seek  other  fields. 
It  happens  that  coincident  with  the  beginning  of  the 
Canal  construction  by  the  United  States,  the  West 
Coast  countries  are  entering  upon  definite  policies  of 
harbor  and  municipal  improvements  and  other  forms 
of  public  works,  including  railway  building.  There 


20 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


is  also  the  new  era  of  the  mines.  The  industrial  im- 
pulse is  one  of  the  immediate  economic  effects  of  the 
Canal.  It  appeals  to  the  American  spirit.  It  will 
find  a quickening  response.  In  subsequent  chapters 
I therefore  venture  to  indicate  its  field  of  activity,  with 
such  suggestions  as  may  be  of  practical  worth. 


CHAPTER  II 


TRAVEL  HINTS 

Adopting  Local  Customs  — V alue  of  the  Spanish  Language  — 
Knowledge  of  People  Obtained  through  Their  Speech  — 
English  in  Trade  — Serviceable  Clothing  in  Different 
Climates  — Moderation  in  Diet  — Coffee  at  its  True 
W orth  — Wines  and  Mineral  W aters  — Native  Dishes  — 
Tropical  Fruits  — Aguacate  and  Cheremoya  Palatal  Luxu- 
ries — Hotels  and  Hotel-keepers  — Baggage  Afoat  and 
Ashore  — Outfits  for  the  Andes  : Food  and  Animals  — West 
Coast  ^arantines  — Money  Mediums  — The  Common 
Maladies  and  How  to  Treat  Them 

TO  live  as  they  live;  to  travel  as  they  travel ; — that 
is  about  all  there  is  to  living  and  travelling  in 
South  America  and  on  the  Isthmus. 

All  the  customs  will  not  be  adopted  by  Northerners, 
nor  all  the  habits  followed.  More  comfort  will  be 
demanded  and  more  cleanliness.  But  the  general  fact 
holds  that  the  people  living  in  any  country  have 
acquired  by  experience  the  knowledge  of  what  is  re- 
quired by  climatic  and  other  conditions  in  regard  to 
food,  drink,  dress,  shelter,  and  recreation.  There 
is  reason  for  all  things,  even  for  the  adobe  tomb 
dwellings  of  the  aboriginal  Indians  of  Bolivia,  or  the 
mid-day  siesta  of  the  busy  merchant  of  Panama. 

First  of  all,  it  is  desirable  to  know  the  language. 
Spanish  is  the  idiom  of  South  America,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Brazil.  At  the  outset  let  me  say  that  the 
chance  traveller  who  wants  to  go  down  the  coast  or 


22 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


even  take  an  occasional  trip  into  the  interior  can  get 
along  with  his  stock  of  English.  In  all  the  seaport 
towns  are  English-speaking  persons,  merchants  or 
others.  On  the  ships  English  is  as  common  as 
Spanish,  and  in  some  of  the  obscurest  places  the 
tongue  of  Chaucer  may  be  heard.  In  one  of  the 
most  out-of-the-way  and  utterly  forsaken  little  holes 
on  the  coast,  I found  the  local  official  who  was 
sovereign  there  teaching  his  boy  arithm.etic  in  Eng- 
lish. He  had  been  both  in  England  and  in  the 
United  States,  and  while  his  own  prospects  now  were 
bounded  by  the  horizon  of  the  cove  and  the  drear 
brown  mountain  cliffs  that  shut  it  in,  he  was  deter- 
mined that  his  son  should  have  a wider  future.  There 
are  also  many  young  South  Americans  who  have  been 
educated  in  the  United  States  and  some  of  whom  are 
met  at  almost  inaccessible  points  in  the  interior. 

I state  this  so  that  no  one  who  contemplates  a 
journey  may  be  turned  away  from  it  by  any  supposed 
difficulty  in  getting  along  through  inability  to  speak 
the  prevailing  idiom.  He  can  do  very  well.  Yet 
with  all  his  faculties  of  observation  alert  he  will  miss 
much  through  his  ignorance  of  the  readiest  mode  of 
conveying  and  receiving  thought.  To  know  any 
country  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  people,  and  the 
people  are  only  known  through  the  medium  of  their 
speech.  Their  customs  are  better  understood,  their 
limitations  are  appreciated,  and  their  strivings  for 
something  better,  if  they  have  any,  are  interpreted 
sympathetically.  The  paramount  local  topic  becomes 
a living  theme  into  which  the  visitor  can  enter  under- 
standingly  and  add  to  his  stock  of  knowledge. 

Let  me  say,  also,  that  wherever  trade  is,  there  is  the 


TRAVEL  HINTS 


23 


English  language,  and  as  commerce  grows  it  will  spread. 
The  terse  English  business  letter  is  the  admiration  of 
the  Latin-American  merchant.  Yet  there  is  no  wilder 
notion  than  that  trade  will  advance  itself  without  the 
knowledge  of  the  language  of  the  country  into  which 
it  is  pushing.  Many  native  mercantile  houses  have 
English-speaking  clerks,  or  occasionally  a member  of 
the  firm  knows  the  idiom.  But  the  commercial  trav- 
eller from  the  United  States  who  does  not  speak 
Spanish  never  will  compete  with  his  German  rival  who 
talks  trade  in  all  known  tongues. 

This,  in  brief,  is  the  commercial  situation  as  to  the 
English  language.  The  business  man  who  waits  for 
Spanish  America  to  come  within  its  sphere  as  the  world 
language,  will  not  achieve  success  in  this  generation. 

For  those  who  look  forward  to  a future  in  South 
America,  either  in  trade  or  in  industrial  enterprises, 
there  is  only  one  word  of  advice  to  be  given : that 
is,  to  learn  Spanish  and  to  learn  it  at  once.  Diffident 
as  the  North  American  is  about  foreign  tongues  and 
badly  as  he  speaks  any  language  except  his  own,  there 
is  little  reason  why  his  self-distrust  or  his  contempt  for 
other  nationalities  should  keep  him  from  acquiring 
Spanish.  “ It  is  pronounced  as  written  and  is  written 
as  pronounced.”  Colloquially  it  is  the  easiest  of 
tongues  to  master.  Since  every  letter  is  sounded  and 
is  always  pronounced  the  same,  there  is  no  trouble 
with  the  syllables  and  there  are  no  such  difficult 
sounds  as  the  German  umlaut  or  the  French  “en.” 
The  high-sounding  expressions,  while  they  seem  very 
formal  and  complicated,  are  quickly  acquired,  and  the 
habit  of  thinking  of  the  greetings  of  the  day  and  simi- 
lar commonplace  topics  in  the  strange  tongue  comes 


24 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


more  easily  than  is  imagined.  With  practice  any 
fairly  persistent  person  can  get  enough  of  Spanish  to 
avoid  the  cumbersome  process  of  thinking  in  English 
and  then  translating  his  thoughts.  A vocabulary  of 
2,000  words  is  an  ample  one  for  the  purposes  of 
every-day  life. 

The  oaths  need  not  be  learned.  The  English  ex- 
pletives are  expressive  enough  not  to  need  translation, 
and  they  lack  the  suggestive  obscenity  of  the  Span- 
ish objurgations.  It  is  good  to  learn  “ Carambal  ” in 
all  the  tones  and  inflections  and  to  stop  there. 

The  phrase-book  may  be  studied  without  ridicule, 
and  every  opportunity  be  taken  for  putting  its  pre- 
cepts to  the  test.  I do  not  mean  from  this  to  indi- 
cate that  a thorough  knowledge  of  Spanish  can  be 
gained  in  such  manner,  or  that  the  Yankee  ever  will 
master  the  noble  and  stately  literary  language  of  Cer- 
vantes, Calderon,  and  Lope  de  Vega.  He  will  not 
need  to  use  the  literary  language.  If  he  have  a 
chance  to  secure  his  first  training  in  Bogota  or  Lima, 
that  will  be  an  unusual  advantage,  for  it  is  in  those 
capitals  that  the  purest  Spanish  of  the  New  World  is 
spoken.  But  this  is  not  necessary,  and  if  it  be  his 
misfortune  to  learn  the  rudiments  through  an  unedu- 
cated Chilean  or  Argentine  source,  even  that  harsh 
and  choppy  Spanish  will  be  understood.  By  all  this 
I mean  the  practical  tool  of  the  tongue  in  common 
use,  and  not  the  melodious  Castilian  that  may  be  de- 
sirable in  polite  society. 

It  is  a very  decided  advantage  to  know  enough  of 
the  written  language  to  read  the  newspapers,  an  occa- 
sional book  by  a native  author,  the  steamship  sched- 
ules, the  railway  time-tables,  the  proclamations  and 


TRAVEL  HINTS 


25 


official  decrees,  and  the  advertising  posters.  All 
serve  their  purpose  to  the  man  who  has  business  or 
who  would  be  in  touch  with  his  surroundings.  It  is 
true  that  in  the  interior  the  Indian  tribes  adhere  to 
their  own  dialects  and  the  majority  of  South  Ameri- 
can Indians  do  not  understand  Spanish.  But  the 
officials  everywhere  speak  it,  and  in  the  Indian  vil- 
lages there  is  a head  man,  or  cacique^  who  knows  the 
idiom  of  the  master  race.  If  they  are  not  familiar 
with  Spanish,  the  sounds  of  English  are  even  more 
strange  to  them. 

Dress  for  sea  voyages  is  easily  determined,  but 
clothing  for  land  and  sea  is  a more  difficult  question. 
My  own  experience,  and  I think  it  is  the  experience 
of  other  travellers,  has  been  that  woollens  are  the  most 
serviceable  in  all  climates.  In  the  cold  regions  they 
are  essential.  In  the  tropics,  when  loosely  woven, 
they  are  comfortable.  Where  the  pure  wool  is  dis- 
agreeable to  the  wearer,  a mixture  of  cotton  in  the 
garment  may  serve.  Flannels  are  the  best  protection 
against  an  overheated  body  and  quick  changes  of 
temperature.  These  hints  apply  to  all  places,  all 
times,  and  all  conditions. 

For  the  rest,  although  the  Anglo-Saxon  newcomer 
sometimes  assumes  otherwise,  the  people  of  all  the 
West  Coast  cities  are  civilized  and  accustomed  to  the 
usages  of  polite  society.  Men  wear  the  conventional 
dress  suit,  or  traje  de  etiqueta,  on  formal  occasions.  The 
six  o’clock  rule  does  not  hold  in  Spanish-American 
countries.  Official  functions,  weddings,  and  similar 
social  gatherings  call  for  the  dress  suit  as  early  as  ten 
o’clock  in  the  morning.  But  the  visitor  in  this  matter 
may  consult  his  own  convenience  to  some  extent. 


2G  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 

regardless  of  local  customs.  The  professional  classes, 
doctors  and  lawyers  especially,  have  a habit  of  uphold- 
ing their  dignity  by  wearing  the  tall  hat  and  the  frock 
coat  in  the  hottest  seasons.  It  is  rather  a tradition 
than  a requirement  of  good  breeding.  The  traveller 
may  ignore  it  without  losing  social  caste. 

In  the  matter  of  eating  and  drinking  moderation  is 
a rule  which  slowly  impresses  itself  on  foreigners.  As 
to  drinking,  the  Englishman  on  the  West  Coast  has 
not  yet  learned  temperance.  He  absorbs  vast  quan- 
tities of  brandy  and  soda,  or  of  whiskey  and  water, 
with  the  soda  or  water  always  in  infinitesimal  amounts. 
He  has  his  excuse  for  it, — the  loneliness  of  his  exile, 
the  climate,  and  so  forth.  But  he  also  has  a counter- 
irritant  for  the  drink  habit  in  his  fondness  for  the 
manly  outdoor  sports  which  he  practises  as  regularly 
as  at  home. 

French  wines  may  be  procured  anywhere  in  South 
America,  but  it  is  not  always  well  to  trust  the  labels. 
A fair  native  wine  is  made  in  Peru,  and  Chile  pro- 
duces an  unusually  good  article.  If  the  quality  of 
the  claret  is  not  quite  equal  to  Medoc,  it  is  good 
enough  for  any  one  except  a connoisseur.  English 
ales  also  are  to  be  had,  and  of  recent  years  bottled 
St.  Louis  or  Milwaukee  beer  can  be  obtained  at  all 
the  larger  places.  I have  found  St.  Louis  beer  up 
in  the  Cerro  de  Pasco  mining  regions  of  Peru.  All 
of  the  countries  have  local  breweries,  but  Americans 
do  not  like  the  brew. 

Mineral  waters,  which  are  to  be  bad  everywhere, 
in  time  come  to  pall  on  the  palate.  They  may  be 
alternated  with  the  wines  or  other  beverages  satis- 
factorily. There  is  a native  drink  called  chicha,  a 


TRAVEL  HINTS 


27 


distillation  of  corn  fermented  in  lye,  which  is  refresh- 
ing and  strengthening  and  tastes  like  fresh  cider. 
The  subjects  of  the  Incas  refreshed  the  Spanish  con- 
querors with  this  drink.  It  is  celebrated  in  song,  — 
“ O nectar  sabroso.”  Yet  a word  of  warning  — to 
enjoy  chicha  a second  time  and  other  times,  make 
no  inquiry  and  take  no  thought  of  how  it  is  prepared. 
Always  imbibe  it  from  a gourd. 

The  aboriginal  thirst  of  the  Indians  and  also  of 
the  mestizos^  or  half-breeds,  is  for  raw  alcohol.  This 
thirst  is  satisfied  by  the  aguardiente,  or  cane  rum. 
It  demoralizes  the  native  population,  and  is  a curse 
with  which  the  governments  are  unable  to  cope. 
When  the  rum  cannot  be  obtained,  some  other  form 
of  alcoholic  spirits  is  provided. 

The  Continental  custom  as  to  meals  obtains  both 
in  the  tropical  parts  of  the  West  Coast  and  in  the 
colder  climates,  as  in  Bolivia  and  Chile.  There  is 
simply  breakfast,  or  the  mid-day  meal,  and  dinner. 
In  the  morning  coffee  and  rolls  — or  with  most  of 
the  Spanish-Americans,  coffee  and  cigarettes — are  the 
sole  refreshment  which  is  expected  to  carry  one  through 
till  noon.  Americans,  however,  usually  procure  fruit 
and  eggs.  Coffee-making  and  coffee-drinking  are  arts 
unknown  to  the  Yankee.  Travel  in  South  America  is 
a liberal  and  much-needed  education  in  this  respect. 

The  almuerzo,  or  mid-day  breakfast,  is  fully  as  sub- 
stantial a meal  as  the  six  or  seven  o’clock  dinner. 
Both  begin  with  soup  and  fish,  the  best  of  the  latter 
being  the  corbina.  At  the  breakfast  eggs  invariably 
are  served,  and  usually  rice.  The  latter  is  prepared 
as  a vegetable  with  rare  art,  retaining  the  form  and 
whiteness  of  the  grain.  Meat  courses,  beginning  with 


28  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 

the  fowl,  follow  in  procession,  and  a salad  always  may 
be  had. 

The  Spaniard  and  his  descendants  in  South  America 
approach  roast  pig  as  reverently  as  Charles  Lamb 
did.  For  them  it  is  a poem.  A very  good  dish 
transplanted  from  Spain  is  called  the  puchero,  and  is 
something  like  a New  England  boiled  dinner,  having 
a variety  of  vegetables  cooked  with  the  meats  which 
are  its  foundation. 

In  the  interior,  where  reliance  has  to  be  had  on  the 
Indian  population,  the  standard  dish  is  the  chup'ey 
though  it  bears  different  names.'  This  is  a rich  soup, 
highly  seasoned  by  dried  red  peppers,  with  plenty 
of  vegetables,  and  with  a meat  stock  as  the  basis. 
Sometimes  the  meat  is  the  vicuna  or  llama,  some- 
times goat,  sometimes  mutton,  and  once  in  a while 
beef.  It  is  wholesome  and  satisfying.  The  only 
caution  to  be  observed  is  not  to  see  its  preparation 
by  the  Indian  women. 

Two  luxuries  among  the  fruits  of  the  tropics  make 
oranges,  bananas,  and  pineapples  seem  commonplace. 
These  are  the  alligator  pear  and  the  cheremoya.  The 
Northern  appetite  cloys  at  the  preserved  sweets  which 
the  tropical  palate  demands,  but  it  never  loses  the 
enjoyment  of  these  fruits.  The  alligator  pear  {Gua~ 
nabanus  Persea)  in  the  West  Indies  and  in  Mexico 
goes  by  the  name  of  aguacate  or  avocat.  In  South 
America  it  is  called  the  palta.  It  is  eaten  as  a salad, 
and  French  genius  never  concocted  a delicacy  equal 
to  this  natural  appetizer. 

The  aguacate  looks  like  a small  squash  rather  than 
a pear.  It  has  a kernel,  or  hard  stone,  as  big  as  the 
fist.  The  flanks  are  laid  open,  the  stone  removed. 


Banana  Grove 


Pineapple  Garden 


TRAVEL  HINTS 


29 


and  the  fruit  is  ready  to  serve  in  its  own  dressing. 
Some  prefer  it  with  just  a pinch  of  salt.  Others  add 
a touch  of  pepper.  Many  like  a little  vinegar  with 
the  salt  and  pepper,  and  a few  even  prefer  a regular 
French  dressing  with  oil,  though  that  is  apt  to  spoil 
the  natural  flavor.  Epicures  like  it  with  sugar  and 
lemon  juice.  The  aguacate  is  one  of  the  undisguised 
palatal  blessings  of  the  tropics  and  the  semi-tropics. 
It  should  be  sought  after  and  insisted  on  at  every 
occasion.  The  imported  fruit  loses  the  poetic  savor. 
The  most  careful  packing  and  tenderest  care  cannot 
preserve  its  delicate  taste.  I tried  it  once  in  bringing 
some  from  Honolulu  to  San  Francisco.  They  looked 
well,  but  something  was  lacking  in  the  taste.  A simi- 
lar experience  between  Jamaica  and  New  York  was  the 
reward  for  my  efforts.  I was  convinced  after  these 
experiments  that  the  aguacate  is  one  of  the  real  luxu- 
ries which  it  pays  to  go  abroad  in  order  to  enjoy. 
Young  persons  who  travel  will  be  interested  in  know- 
ing that  it  is  said  to  germinate  the  tender  sentiment. 

The  cheremoya  is  not  unlike  the  pawpaw  of  the  tem- 
perate climates.  The  fibre  is  harder  and  not  so  juicy. 
But  the  fruit  is  very  rich,  so  rich  that  the  palate  does 
not  crave  much.  A mouthful  lingers  like  the  dream 
of  the  poet.  The  cheremoya  is  called  the  anona  in 
Cuba.  Several  varieties  of  it  differ  from  one  another 
only  in  the  delicacy  and  richness  of  the  flavor. 
Cracked  ice  is  the  complement  of  the  fruit.  They 
should  be  introduced  to  each  other  an  hour  before 
serving. 

A delusion  which  the  adventuring  North  American 
should  get  rid  of  is  that  no  decent  hotels  are  found  on 
the  West  Coast  and  in  the  interior.  Everywhere  are 


30 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


passable  ones  and  in  some  of  the  cities  exception- 
ally good  ones.  In  the  ordinary  coast  towns  they  - 
are  not  much  more  than  stopping-places,  yet  almost 
invariably  an  excellent  breakfast  or  dinner  can  be 
obtained.  As  to  the  lodging  conveniences  the  old 
Spanish  tradition  still  obtains  that  a place  to  sleep  in 
is  all  that  is  called  for,  and  clean  linen  and  similar 
comforts  should  not  be  demanded  by  the  traveller 
who  is  moving  on.  But  even  in  this  respect  improve- 
ments are  being  made. 

Most  of  the  hotel-keepers  are  of  foreign  nationality, 
— French,  Germans,  Italians,  and  Spaniards.  It  is 
rare  to  find  anything  of  a higher  grade  than  an  inn 
kept  by  a native.  The  best  hotels  are  those  under 
the  control  of  the  Frenchmen,  and  when  a choice  is 
to  be  made  they  should  be  given  the  preference,  for 
there  is  not  only  good  eating  but  cleanliness  and  some 
consideration  for  the  conveniences  of  life.  A French- 
man keeps  the  hotel  at  La  Paz  in  Bolivia,  and  it  is 
a good  one.  Another  passably  fair  house  of  entertain- 
ment in  the  same  place  is  kept  by  a Russian.  At  the 
mining-town  of  Oruro  a North  American  of  German 
descent  provides  excellent  accommodations.  In  the 
remote  town  of  Tupiza  in  the  fastnesses  of  the  Andes, 
where  of  all  places  one  would  hardly  look  for  a for- 
eigner, I found  a Slav  hotel-keeper  and  a decent  kind 
of  a resting-place.  The  proprietor  was  from  one 
of  the  Danubian  provinces.  In  Lima  a very  well 
appointed  hotel  is  managed  by  an  Italian.  In  San- 
tiago the  best  one  is  under  the  control  of  a Frenchman. 

In  the  interior  palatial  inns  are  not  to  be  expected, 
though  a young  French  mining  engineer  who  came 
out  telegraphed  along  the  Andes  trail  which  he  was 


TRAVEL  HINTS 


31 


to  follow  to  have  room  with  bath  reserved  for  him. 
The  telegram  is  still  shown.  Such  inns  as  exist  are 
called  tambos.  Even  in  the  poorest  of  these,  while 
the  lodging  is  wretched,  a good  meal  usually  can 
be  had. 

The  practice  obtains  nearly  everywhere  of  charging 
separately  for  the  lodging,  but  in  some  of  the  larger 
cities  the  hotels  now  are  conducted  on  the  American 
plan.  The  visitor  is  apt  to  be  puzzled  by  the  annexes. 
Naturally  he  assumes  that  the  annexes  to  a hotel  are 
part  of  it,  but  usually  they  are  separate  and  under 
a distinct  management.  In  Valparaiso  there  are  a 
Hotel  Colon  and  a Hotel  Colon  Annex,  a block 
or  two  apart  and  altogether  different.  In  Santiago 
are  the  Hotel  Oddo  and  the  Annex  to  the  Oddo, 
and  so  on.  This  causes  confusion,  and  the  traveller 
should  make  inquiry  in  advance  so  as  to  know  where 
he  is  going.  While  the  sanitary  conveniences  in  most 
of  the  hotels  are  poor,  improvements  are  being  made, 
and  there  is  something  of  an  approach  to  the  demands 
of  civilization. 

A simple  rule  as  to  baggage  holds  good.  Take 
as  little  as  practicable  and  pack  it  as  conveniently  as 
possible.  That  means  a good  deal  of  loose  luggage ; 
but  since  trunks  are  charged  by  weight  and  very  few 
of  the  railroads  make  any  allowance  for  free  baggage, 
it  is  desirable  to  have  one’s  belongings  arranged  so 
that  they  can  be  piled  up  around  him.  One  soon 
becomes  accustomed  to  this  and  to  providing  himself 
with  an  armful  of  rugs  and  blankets. 

Railroad  fares  are  about  one-third  less  than  in  the 
United  States.  The  accommodations  are  not  luxuri- 
ous, but  they  are  fair.  Night  trips  are  unknown. 


32 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


Chile  is  the  only  country  on  the  West  Coast  which 
provides  a through  night  train  with  a sleeper.  This 
is  on  the  line  between  Santiago  and  Talca. 

An  addition  to  the  regular  expense  of  travel  is  that 
for  embarkation  and  disembarkation.  It  is  not 
covered  in  the  steamship  ticket,  and  since,  with  few 
exceptions,  in  the  different  ports  the  vessels  do  not 
go  to  wharves  of  their  own  or  put  their  passengers 
ashore  in  lighters,  each  makes  his  choice  of  the  small 
boats  and  pays  the  bill.  These  charges  are  not  high, 
yet  in  the  course  of  a long  voyage  they  mount  up,  and 
it  always  is  desirable  to  make  the  bargain  with  the 
boatman  in  advance. 

For  travel  in  the  Andine  regions  it  is  necessary  to 
provide  one’s  own  outfit.  For  those  who  have  to 
go  about  much  it  is  not  practicable  to  have  their  own 
pack  and  riding  animals,  though  occasionally  a mining 
engineer  will  keep  a pair  of  horses  or  mules  and  trans- 
port them  from  place  to  place.  Usually  the  mules 
and  burros,  or  donkeys,  have”  to  be  hired.  In  every 
case  it  is  advantageous  to  own  the  montura,  or  saddle, 
and  other  accoutrements,  with  especial  regard  to  the 
capacity  of  the  saddle-bags.  Though  in  the  United 
States  the  McClellan  is  the  favorite  for  hard  travelling, 
Americans  engaged  in  mining  or  in  exploration  work 
in  the  Andes  prefer  the  Mexican  saddle.  A mining 
company  in  southern  Peru  after  various  trials  dis- 
carded everything  except  Mexican  saddles,  and  had 
these  made  especially  in  San  Francisco.  In  my  own 
experience  I found  them  the  most  comfortable. 

The  petacas^  or  leather  trunks,  are  used  by  all  the 
South  Americans.  These  are  small,  and  a pair  of  them 
balance  nicely  on  either  side  of  the  pack  animal.  Yet 


TRAVEL  HINTS 


33 


during  a long  mountain  journey  I managed  to  trans- 
port an  ordinary  trunk.  The  Andean  mule  is  bred  in 
northern  Argentina.  It  is  not  the  society  pet  that 
is  its  cousin  of  the  United  States  Army,  and  it  will 
carry  a burden  of  two  hundred  pounds  in  the  upper 
altitudes. 

A supply  of  canned  goods  and  similar  provisions  is 
essential,  for  it  is  not  possible  to  rely  solely  on  such 
wayfaring  entertainment  as  may  be  had  at  the  Indian 
huts,  even  when  the  trip  is  short  enough  to  keep 
within  the  limits  of  human  habitation.  Charqui,  or 
jerked  beef,  is  the  mainstay  of  the  stomach  for  a long 
journey,  but  dried  mutton  sometimes  may  be  had,  and 
is  less  likely  to  become  unpalatable.  Chuni,  the  dried 
and  frozen  potato  which  nourishes  the  Bolivian  In- 
dians, has  nutritive  virtues,  but  palatability  is  not  one 
of  them. 

The  chief  problem  in  mountain  travelling  is  fodder 
for  the  animal  rather  than  food  for  the  man.  In  the 
valleys  and  part  way  up  the  punas,  or  table-lands,  fresh 
alfalfa  may  be  had.  But  in  the  higher  sierras  this  is 
lacking,  and  it  is  necessary  to  carry  a stock  of  barley. 
In  some  places  where  barley  can  be  raised  it  runs  to 
straw  and  does  not  mature  into  the  grain,  so  that  the 
local  supply  is  not  to  be  depended  on. 

A hammock  is  useful  in  the  forest  regions.  A tent 
and  other  camping  outfit  are  sometimes  desirable,  yet 
where  it  is  possible  to  keep  within  the  range  of  popu- 
lation it  is  better  to  risk  shelter  in  the  Indian  huts,  the 
traveller  carrying  his  own  blankets  or  sleeping-bag. 
A Western  frontiersman  or  miner  has  little  difficulty 
in  outfitting  for  the  Andean  regions. 

The  quarantine  is  one  of  the  serious  annoyances 

3 


34 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


of  travel  on  the  West  Coast,  though  the  interrup- 
tion which  it  causes  often  is  exaggerated.  At  times 
one  may  have  to  postpone  a landing  ora  departure 
because  of  the  restriction,  and  in  that  case  there  is 
nothing  to  be  done  but  go  on  to  the  next  open  port 
and  wait  in  patience.  The  regulations  of  the  different 
governments  are  similar,  though  they  are  not  always 
enforced  with  discretion  and  common-sense.  Yet  they 
are  no  more  severe  than  the  regulations  of  New 
Orleans  or  other  Southern  ports  of  the  United  States. 
Their  purpose  of  self-protection  is  justifiable.  The 
objection  is  that  the  application  of  the  measures 
taken  is  unreasonable.  The  steamship  companies  in- 
sist on  the  exaction  of  charging  the  passengers  an 
extra  sum  for  the  time  in  which  the  vessel  is  held  in 
quarantine. 

So  many  sorts  of  money  are  in  circulation  that  it  is 
impossible  for  the  traveller  not  to  lose  through 
exchange.  The  United  States  dollar  is  known  well 
enough,  but  it  has  nor  yet  made  its  way  down  the  coast 
sufficiently  to  insure  being  taken  for  its  full  worth. 
Letters  of  credit  and  bank  drafts  would  better  be  in 
English  money,  for  the  banks  and  exchange  houses 
insist  on  counting  the  ^5  gold  piece  as  equal  only  to 
the  pound  sterling,  or  $4.85.  It  will  take  some  years 
for  the  full  result  of  the  Panama  money  system  to  be 
felt  on  the  West  Coast,  though  ultimately  that  will 
help  to  extend  the  use  of  United  States  currency. 

A calculation  is  made  every  quarter  by  the  United 
States  Mint  of  the  value  of  the  coins  representing  the 
monetary  units  of  the  various  Latin-American  coun- 
tries. This  serves  as  an  index  of  values,  though  in 
actual  transactions  it  cannot  always  be  insisted  upon. 


TRAVEL  HINTS 


35 


The  universal  coin  on  the  West  Coast  is  the  Peruvian 
soly  equal  to  48|-  cents  gold.  It  is  the  size  of  the 
American  silver  dollar.  Since  Peru  has  the  gold 
standard  and  coins  a Peruvian  pound  called  the  incay 
exactly  the  weight  and  fineness  of  the  English  pound 
sterling,  there  is  no  fluctuation.  Ten  soles  make  a 
pound.  For  local  purposes  along  the  coast  the 
Peruvian  sol  is  therefore  the  best  medium  of  exchange. 

I have  left  for  separate  consideration  the  subject 
of  the  diseases  incident  to  West  Coast  travel  and 
residence.  Their  mention  frightens.  Why,  I do  not 
know. 

Pneumonia  and  typhoid  in  the  temperate  climates 
cause  greater  ravages  than  tropical  diseases  in  their 
field,  nor  is  malaria  in  its  manifold  manifestations 
limited  to  a given  area.  Fever  and  ague  in  the  United 
States,  calentura  in  the  West  Indies,  terciana  in  the 
forest  regions  of  the  Andes,  — it  all  is  essentially 
the  breakbone  fever.  Quinine  and  calomel  remain  the 
tonic  preventives.  Tropical  dysentery  is  to  be  guarded 
against  by  common-sense  in  diet.  The  social  vices 
bring  their  inexorable  penalty  more  swiftly  than  in  the 
North,  but  their  remedy  is  the  moral  prophylactic. 
Yellow  fever,  since  the  demonstration  of  the  mosquito 
as  the  active  agent  in  its  propagation,  is  losing  its  ter- 
rors, but  its  avoidance  comes  under  the  sphere  of  epi- 
demic quarantines  rather  than  of  individual  measures. 
The  exceptional  conditions  which  will  prevail  on  the 
Isthmus  during  the  Canal  construction  and  the  ex- 
ceptional means  adopted  to  combat  disease  are  not  to 
be  taken  as  representative  of  the  West  Coast.  Yet 
the  benefit  of  this  experience  will  be  great.  But 
whether  along  the  coast,  on  the  plateaus  of  the  Andes, 


36 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


or  in  the  tropical  valleys,  one  general  rule  is  more 
valuable  than  a medicine  chest.  It  is  that  of  a healthy, 
fearless  mind  which  does  not  magnify  ordinary  ail- 
ments and  which  keeps  its  poise  in  the  shadow  of 
more  serious  illness. 


CHAPTER  III 


THE  ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA 

Canal  Entrance  — Colon  in  Architectural  Transformation  — Un- 
changing Climate  — Historic  W aterway  Routes  — Columbus 
and  the  Early  Explorers  — Darien  and  San  Bias  — East  and 
West  Directions  — Life  along  the  Railway — Chagres  River 
and  Culebra  Cut  — Three  Panamas  — Pacific  Mouth  of  the 
Canal  — Functions  of  the  Republic  — Natural  Resources  — 
Agriculture  and  Timber  — Road-building  — United  States 
Authority  on  the  Zone  — Labor  and  Laborers  — Misleading 
Comparisons  with  Cuba  — The  First  Year's  Experience. 

WHEN  the  Caribbean  is  restive,  restless  is  the 
voyager.  After  tossing  in  misery  one  April 
night  I peered  through  the  port-hole  of  the  steamer’s 
cabin  at  what  seemed  a cluster  of  swinging  lanterns 
dipping  into  the  sea.  They  were  the  lights  of  Colon. 
The  vessel  was  riding  at  anchor  to  await  the  morn- 
ing hour  when  the  approach  to  the  quays  could  be 
made. 

Daybreak  unfolded  through  the  mist,  disclosing 
green  foliage  ridges  and  broken  forest-clad  hills  slop- 
ing to  a shallow  bowl.  This  circular  basin  is  the 
island  of  Manzanillo.  The  town  lies  as  in  the  bot- 
tom of  a saucer.  Colon  is  not  a harbor  in  the  usual 
sense,  for  the  curving  Bay  of  Limon  which  it  fringes  is 
an  open  roadstead.  The  improvements  by  the  United 
States  will  make  it  a commercial  haven. 

For  all  the  years  to  come  the  blue  horizon  will  be 
swept  by  the  eager  eye  of  the  traveller  for  the  Canal 


38 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


entrance.  Seen  from  the  ship’s  deck,  it  is  like  the 
smooth  surface  of  a sluggish  river,  broad  and  open. 
The  artistic  instinct  of  the  French  engineers  found 
expression  even  in  the  prosaic  work  of  earth  excava- 
tion. They  planted  a village  in  the  midst  of  cocoanut 
groves,  and  the  palm-thatched  cottages  charm  the  eye. 
The  bronze  group  of  Columbus  and  the  Indian,  Em- 
press Eugenie’s  gift,  allegorical  of  the  enlightenment  of 
the  New  World,  may  be  seen  through  glasses,  while  the 
showy  residence  built  for  De  Lesseps  is  discerned. 

Little  is  noted  of  the  town  till  the  wharves  are  ap- 
proached. There  is  a group  of  warehouses,  a glimpse 
of  railroad  yards,  a conglomeration  of  frame  houses 
with  peaked  roofs  and  outside  balconies  and  stairways, 
and  then  swamps,  marshes,  and  hills  beyond.  The 
great  transatlantic  liners  stretched  along  the  docks  are 
far  more  imposing  than  the  port  town  itself. 

Ashore,  the  frame  structures  give  an  impression  of 
all  that  is  temporary  and  unsubstantial.  Some  have 
been  streaked  with  deep  indigo  blue,  but  the  sun  and 
the  salt  air  have  worn  the  pigment  to  a faded  azure. 
Colon  has  little  that  is  typically  and  traditionally  Span- 
ish, because  when  the  insurgents  burned  it  in  1885 
they  left  only  a few  brick  and  mortar  buildings.  The 
town  which  then  sprang  up  was  built  with  economy 
in  view,  though  pine  lumber  was  not  very  cheap. 
The  newer  city  which  gradually  will  replace  the 
aggregation  of  shanties  will  be  more  substantial 
and  more  like  a permanent  seaport.  The  Gothic 
brownstone  church  in  which  the  Jamaica  negroes  and 
the  whites  who  profess  the  Anglican  form  of  faith 
worship,  is  the  one  edifice  in  Colon  that  in  the  trans- 
formation should  be  allowed  to  remain. 


G^mt^' 


f^iH^rmmnai 


'matachin 


^QMON^. 


L^/3/n«/9  eo 


AhortM  Ltgo'to  et 


L lonHiU 


SANPABL^ 


^oA/i« 


^(■6r4 


> / Tortola 


PANAIVIA  CANAL 


Mo  Mafnt 


TMt  MANAMA  CANAL  COMNAHV 


I 


/lH>^ed*RioPm* 


'Cf' 

vT^^^'X  ? 

^^hhtoB  ■■  '"' 

THE  ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA  39 


The  cocoanut  grove  in  front  of  the  hotel,  facing 
the  Caribbean,  is  a pretty  bit  of  landscape,  and  the 
statue  erected  to  William  H.  Aspinwall,  John  L. 
Stephens,  and  Henry  Chauncey,  associates  in  the  build- 
ing of  the  Panama  Railroad,  if  not  a monument  of 
taste,  at  least  serves  a praiseworthy  purpose  as  a tribute 
to  indomitable  American  enterprise.  Ornate  homes, 
tropical  in  the  extreme,  line  the  sea-front,  but  the 
residence  district  is  a very  limited  one  and  will  remain 
so  until  the  swamp  is  filled  in  and  the  marshes  cleared 
away.  Colon  may  be  regarded  as  in  the  process  of 
hygienic  architectural  transition,  and  its  lack  of  attrac- 
tiveness need  not  be  deplored.  The  work  of  recon- 
struction would  be  immensely  facilitated  if  another 
fire  could  sweep  across  the  marshes  and  leave  noth- 
ing but  the  brownstone  church,  the  hotel,  and  the 
wharves. 

Colon  is  the  most  typically  cosmopolitan  place 
upon  the  Isthmus,  and  will  continue  so  until  the 
world’s  commerce  begins  to  flow  through  the  water- 
way. Then  the  city  of  Panama  will  share  with  it  in 
this  respect.  But  Panama  does  not  have  in  so  full  a 
degree  the  European  mixture  as  Colon,  for  the  crews 
of  the  transatlantic  vessels  seldom  get  across  to  the 
Pacific  port.  In  all  the  mingling  of  tongues  in  Colon 

— German,  Spanish,  Italian,  French,  Chinese,  dialect 
Indian,  Greek,  Swedish,  and  many  varieties  of  English 

— nothing  is  so  mellow  and  so  distressing  in  whining 
intonation  as  the  broad  cockney  accent  of  the  Jamaica 
blacks. 

The  work  accomplished  by  the  Panama  Railroad 
Company,  hygienically  and  otherwise,  serves  as  a basis 
for  the  physical  regeneration  of  Colon  which  must 


40 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


accompany  the  Canal  construction.  Its  provisions 
for  its  employees,  its  hospitals,  and  its  general  sani- 
tary regulations  were  so  well  conceived  and  carried  out 
that  their  value  as  an  example  and  a precedent  is  very 
great.  The  engineering  problem  is  comparatively 
simple.  It  is  to  raise  the  level  of  the  island  of  Man- 
zanillo, and  then  to  provide  sanitary  conveniences  and 
enforce  hygienic  principles  both  for  the  community 
and  for  the  individual.  The  question  of  water  supply 
is  one  of  gathering  the  plentiful  showers  of  heaven 
in  cisterns  and  distilling  them.  A system  of  water- 
works which  will  bring  pure  water  from  the  springs 
of  the  Cordillera  is  not  impracticable. 

Colon  is  hot  and  humid.  Its  climate  cannot  be 
modified  by  artificial  devices.  During  the  dry  season, 
which  is  from  April  to  July,  the  mean  temperature  is 
nearly  90°  Fahrenheit  in  the  shade,  while  in  the  sun  it 
is  110°.  The  humidity  is  about  77  per  cent.  In  the 
rainy  season  the  mean  temperature  is  85°,  and  the 
humidity  varies  from  86  per  cent  to  complete  satura- 
tion. The  annual  rainfall  is  seldom  less  than  125 
inches.  A man  six  feet  in  stature  standing  on  the 
shoulders  of  another  man  of  equal  height,  would  just 
about  be  able  to  keep  his  shoulders  above  water  if  the 
two  were  placed  in  a reservoir  which  would  catch  and 
hold  the  entire  rainfall  of  the  year.  But  in  spite  of 
heat  and  humidity  and  precipitated  moisture,  existence 
can  be  made  passably  comfortable. 

As  the  traveller  takes  his  way  across  the  Isthmus, 
he  may  wish  also  to  view  in  retrospect  the  waterways 
that  have  been  conceived  in  the  brains  of  men  who 
were  ahead  of  their  times,  and  the  paths  of  trade  and 
travel  that  have  been  followed ; for  now,  in  the 


THE  ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA 


41 


presence  of  actual  construction  along  a determined 
course,  these  pioneer  routes  quickly  fade  into  oblivion. 

The  projects  have  been  many.  They  were  to  un- 
lock the  key  of  the  universe  and  to  throw  open  a gate- 
way to  the  Pacific.  Columbus  explored  the  Mosquito 
coast  in  search  of  the  passage  to  the  Indies,  and  thought 
he  had  found  another  Ganges,  though  the  strait  which 
he  sought  was  obstinate  in  hiding  itself.  He  planned 
colonies  at  the  Gulf  of  Uraba,  or  Darien.  Balboa  and 
his  companions,  among  whom  was  Pizarro,  from  near 
the  same  place,  200  miles  east  of  the  Chagres,  hewed 
their  way  through  tropical  forest  jungle  and  over 
mountains  till  they  reached  the  summit  of  Piuri,  from 
which  they  saw  the  Pacific  and  named  the  ocean  inlet 
San  Miguel  Bay  in  honor  of  St.  Michael.  A few 
years  later  Balboa  had  “ the  little  boats  ” carried  over 
this  path  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  Long 
afterward,  more  than  a century  and  a half.  Sir  John 
Morgan  led  his  loyal  buccaneers  in  Balboa’s  foot- 
prints to  the  bloody  sacking  of  the  opulent  city  of 
Panama. 

But  the  early  Spaniards  found  a shorter  route  for 
their  traffic.  At  different  periods  the  Chagres  was 
followed  from  its  mouth  till  within  twenty  miles  of 
Panama,  and  then  the  jungle  was  pierced  by  paths. 
Yet  this  was  not  the  camino  real^  or  king’s  highway. 
That  royal  road  was  a cobble-paved  mule  trail  from 
Portobello,  twenty  miles  east  of  what  is  now  Colon, 
to  Santes  on  the  upper  Chagres,  and  thence  to  Panama. 
This  is  the  route  over  which  the  traffic  passed  for 
two  centuries.  The  land  trails  could  be  tested.  The 
canal  courses  could  only  be  dreamed  or  projected  in 
the  imagination. 


42 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


Of  the  three  interoceanic  routes  which  have  become 
historic,  the  early  explorers,  Spanish  and  Portuguese, 
thought  most  of  the  Darien  or  Caledonian  cross-cut 
channel.  It  was  to  start  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Darien, 
near  the  bay  which  afterward  became  known  as  Cale- 
donian Bay,  and  follow  a general  direction  southwest 
to  the  Pacific.  Senor  Don  Angel  Savedro,  one  of  the 
first  petitioners  to  Charles  V for  an  interoceanic  water- 
way, had  this  general  direction  in  his  mind.  This  was 
the  route  advocated  by  the  Scotch  banker,  William 
Patterson,  in  his  broad  scheme  for  Great  Britain  to 
save  control  of  the  Antilles,  by  seizing  Havana,  ac- 
quiring the  Isthmus,  and  constructing  an  isthmian 
canal  in  order  to  carry  the  blessings  of  commerce  and 
civilization  to  the  Sandwich  Islands. 

During  the  nineteenth  century  the  Darien  general 
route  was  no  less  earnestly  advocated  than  in  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  centuries,  and  the  mythical 
low  level  had  many  believers.  Frederick  M.  Kelley, 
the  New  York  banker,  who  gave  fortune  and  a life’s 
ambition  to  the  project  of  an  interoceanic  waterway, 
also  based  his  hopes  on  the  Darien  route.  It  required 
the  explorations  of  Commander  Selfridge  and  subse- 
quent American  expeditions,  as  well  as  the  investiga- 
tions of  Reclus  and  Wyse  for  the  French  company,  to 
dissipate  the  unfounded  hopes  regarding  Darien. 

The  San  Bias  route,  being  the’shortest,  should  have 
had  more  advocates,  for  it  is  only  thirty-one  miles 
across  from  ocean  to  ocean,  but  the  solid  mountain 
wall  of  the  Cordillera  discouraged  most  of  the  early 
explorers.  Its  merits  and  demerits  were  made  familiar 
to  the  public  through  the  discussions  in  Congress. 

It  was  of  the  upper  Chagres  route  that  the  intrepid 


THE  ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA  43 


Frenchman,  Champlain,  whose  voyage  to  the  West 
Indies  and  the  Isthmus  in  1602  seems  to  be  histori- 
cally established,  wrote : “ At  Panama  is  a little  river 
which  rises  in  the  mountains  and  descends  to  Porte 
Bello,  which  river  is  four  leagues  from  Panama  . . . 
and  being  embarked  on  the  said  river  there  are  but 
eighteen  leagues  to  Porte  Bello.  One  may  judge  that  if 
the  four  leagues  of  land  which  there  are  from  Panama 
to  this  river  were  cut  through,  one  might  pass  from  the 
South  Sea  to  the  ocean  on  the  other  side  and  thus 
shorten  the  route  by  more  than  1,500  leagues;  and 
from  Panama  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan  would  be  an 
island,  and  from  Panama  to  the  Newfoundlands  would 
be  another  island,  so  that  the  whole  of  America  would 
be  in  two  islands.” 

The  Raspadura  channel,  by  which  the  Jesuit  Fa- 
thers were  said  to  have  made  the  passage  from  ocean 
to  ocean  in  canoes  with  a very  short  portage,  lacks 
historical  verification. 

The  Chagres  route  was  included  in  the  broad  vision 
of  the  future  which  Lopez  de  Guevara  had  in  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  realization  of 
his  dreams  may  be  for  the  twenty-fifth  century.  He 
proposed  the  union  of  the  two  oceans  by  three  canals 
opening  in  three  points,  — the  Chagres  in  Panama, 
Nicaragua,  and  Tehuantepec. 

Before  following  the  jungle-screened  railway  line  or 
tracing  the  course  of  the  Canal  with  its  luxurious 
border  of  tropical  vegetation,  it  is  desirable  to  clear 
away  geographical  confusion.  The  Isthmus  of  Panama 
extends  almost  directly  east  and  west.  It  is  the  con- 
tour of  the  two  continents  as  formed  by  a neck  not 
simply  awry  but  completely  twisted,  — in  popular 


44 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


language,  a gooseneck.  The  entire  West  Coast  of 
South  America,  except  a slight  bulge  near  the  Equator, 
lies  east  of  the  longitude  of  Cleveland,  Ohio.  Panama 
City  is  about  on  the  north  and  south  line  with  Pitts- 
burg. It  is  southeast  of  Colon,  and  the  general  direc- 
tion of  the  Canal  from  the  Atlantic  entrance,  therefore, 
will  be  southeast. 

The  route  selected  by  the  French  engineers,  and 
which  with  some  variation  will  be  continued  by  the 
United  States,  does  not  need  detailed  description. 
The  course  of  the  Canal  can  be  observed  in  the  rail- 
road journey  to  Gatun,  where  the  first  view  is  had  of 
the  defiant  Chagres  fed  by  its  twenty-one  tributaries. 
I have  seen  the  Chagres  a tame,  sleeping  brook,  losing 
itself  in  the  tropical  jungle  or  the  narrow  gorges,  and 
again  have  looked  on  it  when  It  was  a wild,  resistless 
torrent.  The  engineering  problems  never  can  be  fully 
appreciated  until  one  has  seen  the  Chagres  sweeping 
on  in  its  conquering  career. 

Native  customs  and  the  mixed  life  of  Canal  con- 
struction are  seen  at  the  stations  along  the  railway. 
Every  village  has  its  collection  of  parrots  and  mon- 
keys. The  sights  differ  from  the  scenes  in  other 
parts  of  the  Isthmus,  because  of  this  intermingling  of 
foreigners,  largely  Chinese  and  Jamaican.  But  the  in- 
habitants are  so  markedly  of  the  local  type  that  they 
may  be  easily  distinguished  from  the  foreign  mixture. 
The  aboriginal  Indian  race,  of  which  there  are  various 
branches,  forms  a third  of  the  inhabitants.  The  Pana- 
menan  is  about  three-fourths  Indian  blood  and  one- 
fourth  Spanish,  although  farther  away  from  the  Canal 
Zone  a very  strong  negro  element  exists,  due  to  the 
introduction  of  African  slavery  by  the  early  Spaniards. 


«F- 


The  De  Lessees  House,  Colon 


Caribbean  Cocoa  Palms 


THE  ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA  45 


The  natives,  from  their  familiarity  with  the  jungles  and 
their  ability  to  withstand  the  hardships  of  the  climate 
and  the  exposure,  are  useful  principally  to  the  explor- 
ing parties  and  the  pioneering  expeditions.  They  are 
too  indolent  for  the  actual  work  of  excavation. 

The  Culebra  Cut  is  not  seen  to  full  advantage  from 
the  railway,  yet  a fair  idea  may  be  obtained  of  the 
task  involved  in  cutting  the  spine  of  the  Cordillera 
or  the  Continental  Divide  at  this  the  lowest  depres- 
sion, 272  feet.  The  excavation  and  removal  of  the 
material  from  this  section  is  said  to  be  the  controlling 
factor  in  the  Canal  construction.  The  valley  with  the 
city  of  Panama  huddled  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Ancon, 
and  Taboga  Isle  in  the  bay,  are  seen  to  advantage 
from  Culebra. 

There  are  three  Panamas.  One  is  primitive  Pan- 
ama, in  jungle-covered  ruins,  a few  miles  from  the 
present  port.  This  was  the  city  whose  opulence  was 
the  envy  of  the  world  until  its  treasures  awakened 
the  greed  of  Morgan  and  his  fellow  freebooters  and 
became  their  spoil.  Then  the  new  town  was  built 
and  fortified.  It  is  gloriously  mediaeval  with  all  its 
Spanish  and  Moorish  buildings,  its  cluster  of  emerald 
rocks  in  the  bay,  its  high  tides  and  its  mixed  nation- 
alities, with  little  Italy  and  modernized  China  side  by 
side.  But  the  present  Panama  attracts  only  at  a dis- 
tance, and  will  be  attractive  only  at  a distance  until 
modern  sanitation  can  be  installed  and  some  of  its  pic- 
turesqueness be  destroyed  in  the  interests  of  public 
and  private  hygiene. 

Rivalry  exists  between  Panama  and  Colon  over 
their  relative  climatic  attractions.  Panama  is  much 
drier  than  the  Caribbean  seaport,  the  annual  rainfall 


46 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


usually  being  not  more  than  70  inches  and  the  hu- 
midity of  the  atmosphere  not  so  great.  But  90° 
Fahrenheit  in  the  shade  is  the  average  mean  tem- 
perature, and  the  humidity  is  penetrating  enough  to 
serve  all  practical  purposes  of  discomfort. 

The  new  Panama  is  at  La  Boca,  the  Pacific  mouth 
of  the  Canal.  This  is  the  railway  terminus,  and  it 
is  there  the  United  States  authorities  created  the  port 
of  Ancon  and  then  abandoned  the  plan  of  collecting 
customs  duties  in  competition  with  the  Isthmian  Re- 
public. Wharves  are  located  there,  and  for  shipping 
the  place  offers  some  advantages  over  the  port  of 
Panama.  The  present  Panama  with  its  population 
of  25,000  is  congested.  Its  old  buildings  are  over- 
crowded. They  are  solid,  substantial,  and  will  last 
for  centuries  yet ; but  the  natural  movement  of  popu- 
lation, especially  in  view  of  the  enormous  rents  de- 
manded in  Panama,  will  be  to  seek  the  new  city 
which  will  grow  up  as  a frame  town  with  elements 
of  stability.  Much  business  is  certain  to  drift  to  the 
Canal  mouth,  some  of  it  in  American  hands.  The 
mercantile  community  in  the  days  when  Colombia 
controlled  the  Isthmus  was  anything  but  Colombian. 
It  was  West  Indian,  Italian,  Chinese,  German,  French, 
American,  and  English.  It  is  the  same  to-day  and 
will  be  the  same  to-morrow. 

The  United  States  is  the  paramount  authority  on 
the  Isthmus,  the  control  of  the  Canal  Zone  making 
it  such,  and  its  duty  to  itself  and  its  responsibility  to 
the  world  could  be  discharged  in  no  other  way.  Yet 
there  is  also  the  government  of  the  Republic  of  Pan- 
ama, — a protected  commonwealth.  All  that  needs 
to  be  understood  is  Article  I of  the  Hay-Varilla 


THE  ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA  47 


Treaty.  This  says  that  the  United  States  guarantees 
and  will  maintain  the  independence  of  the  Republic 
of  Panama. 

In  its  political  relations  the  Spanish  term  may  be 
adopted,  and  the  Republic  may  be  said  to  be  “ in 
function  ” within  the  sphere  of  the  United  States.  I 
omit  particulars  of  the  governmental  system  in  order 
to  examine  the  industrial  resources  and  prospects. 
Details  of  administration  are  unnecessary,  because  the 
authority  exercised  by  the  American  officials  in  the 
Canal  Zone,  and  the  supervising  power  over  sanita- 
tion in  Colon  and  Panama,  take  the  subject  out  of  its 
local  limitations.  The  liberality  shown  by  President 
Roosevelt’s  administration  in  adjusting  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  United  States  on  the  broad  lines  laid  down 
by  Secretary  Taft,  left  the  Panama  government  free  to 
work  out  its  commercial  and  industrial  growth  through 
its  own  measures  and  to  the  full  extent  of  its  own 
abilities  as  a commonwealth.  A full  account  of  fiscal 
policy  may  be  omitted,  with  the  general  statement  that 
international  traffic  in  transit  as  taxed  by  port  dues  is 
not  subjected  to  heavy  burdens,  while  the  imposts  on 
domestic  trade  are  not  severe.  While  a tariff  in  the 
protective  sense  may  not  be  said  to  exist,  the  system 
of  ad  valorem  valuations  secures  a customs  revenue 
which  places  all  merchandise  under  tribute.  Internal 
taxation  has  many  forms,  modelled,  as  it  is,  after  the 
Spanish  system.  In  addition  the  income  from  the 
^10,000,000  received  from  the  United  States  assures 
that  the  government  will  continue  to  be  a “going” 
concern,  in  practical  operation  as  well  as  in  legal 
phraseology. 

For  the  student  of  political  institutions  the  interest 


48 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


is  in  the  moulding  of  the  inheritance  of  Spanish  laws 
and  Spanish  administrative  system  to  American  models 
and  the  influence  of  an  environment  so  pronounced  as 
the  American  control  of  the  Canal  Zone.  The  evo- 
lution of  the  civic  spirit,  instead  of  being  under  the 
shadow  of  an  unfriendly  Power,  is  in  the  sunshine  of 
a big  genial  Republic. 

In  its  soil  of  decayed  vegetation  the  Isthmus,  with 
an  area  equal  to  the  State  of  Indiana,  has  natural  wealth 
enough  for  the  subsistence  of  a continent.  But  it  is 
tropical  natural  wealth,  much  of  which  exists  under 
conditions  unfavorable  for  development.  Timber  ex- 
ploitation may  one  day  open  the  longitudinal  path 
eastward  from  the  Canal  Zone  through  the  health- 
destroying  jungles  to  the  Gulf  of  Darien.  Mahogany 
and  others  of  the  precious  hardwoods  offer  the  temp- 
tation. But  the  trail  will  be  blazed  slowly,  a score  or 
so  of  miles  each  decade.  The  mineral  deposits  also 
lie  to  the  east.  They  will  aid  in  the  conquering  of 
this  hitherto  unconquered  region,  yet  gradually. 

The  territory  which  will  be  developed  most  rapidly 
is  that  lying  principally  west  of  the  Canal  Zone  and 
extending  to  the  limits  of  Costa  Rica.  Tropical  agri- 
culture in  the  hands  of  natives  of  the  temperate 
countries  is  entirely  practicable  in  this  region,  much 
of  which  has  a climate  markedly  superior  to  the  belt 
lying  between  Colon  and  Panama  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Chagres  and  the  Grand  Rivers.  The  fruit  industry, 
and  in  particular  banana  culture,  has  made  rapid 
strides,  but  its  possibilities  are  only  in  their  beginning. 
Coffee  cultivation  was  becoming  a profitable  business 
until  the  political  disturbances  ruined  it.  The  revival 
may  be  expected  within  the  five  years  necessary  to 


THE  ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA  49 


bring  the  trees  to  the  point  of  commercial  production. 
Ivory  nuts,  rubber,  and  the  infinite  variety  of  minor 
tropical  products  will  be  stimulated  by  the  market 
that  will  be  opened.  In  the  extreme  west  along  the 
Pacific  slope,  where  grazing  has  been  enough  of  an 
agricultural  industry  to  create  the  flourishing  town  of 
David,  an  enduring  basis  will  be  given  to  the  live-stock 
industry. 

But  none  of  this  agricultural  growth  can  precede 
the  building  of  roads.  These  are  totally  lacking  in 
the  interior.  The  Panama  government  made  sensible 
provision  out  of  its  first  revenues  for  this  form  of 
internal  improvement,  and  the  policy  may  be  looked 
upon  as  a continuous  one.  The  railroad  line  of 
development  will  be  from  Bocas  del  Toro  on  the 
Atlantic  slope  to  David  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Bocas 
del  Toro  will  reach  the  Canal  Zone  by  a railway 
through  the  banana-producing  lands,  and  David  in 
time  may  be  connected  with  Panama. 

In  the  general  sense  the  prosperity  of  the  Isthmus 
for  many  years  depends  more  on  the  excavation  work 
and  on  the  international  commerce  than  on  its  inter- 
nal resources.  It  is  this  which  will  swell  the  trade  of 
$2,000,000  or  $2,500,000  annually  to  greater  figures. 
Yet  the  waterway  is  the  sure  harbinger  of  the  exploita- 
tion of  the  productive  founts.  The  Canal  community 
and  the  Canal  construction  are  the  potent  economic 
factors. 

When  all  is  said,  the  Zone  is  the  thing.  The  laws 
administered  may  not  in  their  entirety  be  American 
laws,  but  they  are  such  in  spirit.  Actually,  the  Canal 
Zone  is  a semi-military  camp.  It  must  continue  such 
for  purposes  of  sanitation  and  law  and  order  during  the 

4 


50 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


entire  period  of  Canal  construction.  What  follows  is 
the  establishment  of  a colony  within  the  Republic  of 
Panama,  yet  not  of  it.  This  colony,  which  includes 
laborers,  civilian  officials,  occasional  detachments  of 
marines,  and  a police  force,  is  not  apt  at  any  time 
greatly  to  exceed  25,000  persons.  The  early  esti- 
mates of  the  very  large  number  of  laborers  who 
would  be  required  were  reduced  when  the  engineers 
began  to  make  closer  study  of  the  degree  to  which 
improved  machinery  could  be  used  in  the  excavation 
and  other  work.  It  will  be  a conglomerate  mass,  — 
Jamaican  and  other  West  Indian  negroes,  Chinese  coo- 
lies, Mexican  and  Central  American  peons,  possibly  a 
few  American  blacks,  Italian  railway  workers,  and  sim- 
ilar elements.  In  spite  of  all  scepticism  and  detraction, 
the  Jamaica  and  Barbadoes  negroes  will  do  the  bulk  of 
the  work  on  the  Canal.  They  did  the  most  of  what 
was  accomplished  by  the  French  company.  They 
built  the  railroads  along  the  unhealthy  coast  of  Costa 
Rica.  They  have  shown  the  greatest  adaptability  to 
the  climate  and  the  best  capacity  for  hard  labor.  The 
Panama  Canal  will  be  the  monumental  contribution  of 
the  despised  black  race  to  civilization. 

Aside  from  determining  the  engineering  conditions 
of  the  Canal,  which  I have  no  purpose  of  discussing  in 
this  volume,  the  most  important  functions  of  the  United 
States  on  the  Isthmus  are  in  regulating  sanitation 
and  hygiene.  This  regulation  could  not  be  restricted 
merely  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Canal  Zone,  for  to 
guard  them  against  epidemics  Colon  and  Panama  had 
to  be  protected. 

I never  shared  the  enthusiasm  over  the  rose-colored 
comparisons  of  the  region  lying  between  Colon  and 


Panama  Natives  from  the  Swamp  Country 


Panama  Natives  from  the  Mountains 


THE  ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA 


51 


Panama  with  Havana  and  Cuba.  Measures  of  hy- 
giene, public  sanitation,  and  even  individual  cleanliness 
will  be  secured  on  the  Canal  Zone  and  in  the  seaport 
cities.  This  will  be  valuable  in  decreasing  the  danger 
from  yellow  fever,  bubonic  plague,  or  other  epidemics. 
And  it  also  may  be  assumed  that  the  strict  supervision 
given  by  the  medical  officers  will  in  a measure  serve  as 
a preventive  against  dysentery  and  enteric  diseases, 
which  are  common  to  the  tropics  and  especially  so  to 
the  moist  lands.  But  the  Canal  Zone  topographically 
is  vastly  different  from  the  island  of  Cuba.  The  At- 
lantic Ocean  sweeps  across  Cuba.  Every  day  of  the 
year  a healthful  breeze  is  felt  in  the  great  central  belt 
of  that  island.  This  not  only  purifies  the  northern 
coast,  but  it  also  invigorates  the  interior  region,  and  its 
effect  is  felt  even  on  the  south  coast.  But  in  the  Canal 
belt  are  the  dead  calms  of  the  Pacific  on  one  side  and 
the  limited  area  of  the  Caribbean  winds  on  the  other 
side.  The  Atlantic  breezes  are  lost  in  the  marshes 
before  they  reach  the  ridge  of  the  Cordillera,  while 
the  zephyr  which  sometimes  springs  up  in  the  Bay 
of  Panama  rarely  extends  as  far  as  the  Culebra  Cut. 
When  the  Canal  is  completed,  it  will  not  serve  as  a 
tube  through  which  the  breezes  of  one  ocean  will 
j whistle  to  the  other  ocean. 

II  I write  these  opinions  without  the  purpose  of  open- 

II  ing  a controversy  with  enthusiastic  scientists,  medical 
I officers,  or  meteorologists,  but  merely  as  a statement 
of  climatic  conditions  which  cannot  be  changed  by  the 
agency  of  man.  There  is  the  peculiar  configuration 
of  the  Cordillera  that  causes  the  moist  blankets  to 
hang  over  the  Isthmus  and  precipitates  the  enormous 
quantities  of  rain.  Cuba  has  its  wet  season  during 


52 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


certain  months,  but  these  rains  are  normal  phenomena 
and  are  not  supercharged  with  disease. 

Miasma  must  result  from  the  excavation  of  the  de- 
cayed vegetation  of  a thousand  years  which  consti- 
tutes the  waterway  line  with  the  exception  of  the 
Culebra  Cut,  and  yet  the  central  belt  of  the  Isthmus 
has  enough  of  pernicious  malaria  even  with  the 
earth  undisturbed.  Experiences  at  Havana  and  else- 
where will  be  utilized,  and  the  mosquito,  if  not  extermi- 
nated, will  have  its  harmfulness  curbed.  Whatever  can 
be  accomplished  by  artificial  means  to  combat  disease- 
breeding Nature  will  be  accomplished,  and  no  doubt 
need  be  felt  regarding  the  efficiency  of  the  sanitary 
corps  as  organized  under  the  Canal  Commission.  But 
when  all  is  not  simply  said  but  done,  it  comes  to  this : 
the  inherent  unhealthy  conditions  of  the  Canal  Zone 
will  be  reduced  to  a minimum.  The  climate  will  not 
be  conquered.  What  may  happen  will  be  to  reconcile 
it  to  the  presence  of  a larger  number  of  inhabitants 
than  the  region  heretofore  has  had. 

For  those  who  will  dwell  and  work  on  the  Isthmus 
the  suggestions  of  the  sanitary  corps  are  so  complete 
that  I can  add  nothing  except  to  advise  to  follow  these 
instructions  and  to  take  a vacation  either  to  the  health- 
ful mountains  of  Costa  Rica  or  down  the  Pacific  coast 
or  back  home  as  often  as  possible.  The  population 
which  will  be  living  in  the  Canal  Zone  for  the  next 
twenty  years  in  relation  to  health  is  to  be  taken  in  the 
mass,  and  the  experiences  of  a few  individuals  who 
have  been  able  to  regulate  their  own  occupations  with 
a special  view  to  conserving  their  strength  are  not  to 
be  accepted  as  applying  to  thousands  of  other  individ- 
uals. Nor  is  the  result  of  a few  months’  life  on  the 


THE  ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA 


53 


Isthmus  in  its  effect  on  the  human  energies  to  be  ac- 
cepted as  the  index  of  what  may  be  expected  after 
several  years,  during  which  the  mental  and  the  phys- 
ical faculties  are  concentrated  on  one  task. 

The  lessons  of  the  first  year’s  experience  are  easily 
learned.  In  the  beginning  was  the  buoyant,  hopeful 
American  temperament  which  goes  straight  forward  to 
the  task  and,  once  determined  that  it  shall  be  done, 
takes  no  note  of  obstacles.  The  Canal  never  would 
be  built  if  the  spirit  of  pessimism  obtained  at  the  out- 
set. Optimism  is  always  better  in  a great  national 
undertaking.  A large  number  of  cheerful  and  confi- 
dent Americans  flocked  to  the  Isthmus  to  fill  positions 
in  the  engineering,  the  clerical,  the  sanitary  depart- 
ments and  on  the  railroad.  That  there  were  confusion 
and  cross-purposes  in  administration  and  complaint 
of  red  tape  was  not  important.  Actually  the  Wash- 
ington authorities  cut  far  more  of  the  red  tape  than 
ordinarily  can  be  done  safely  in  government  enter- 
prises. But  within  a few  months  loud  complaints 
were  heard  about  low  wages,  the  high  cost  of  living, 
the  long  hours  of  labor,  and  the  lack  of  recreation  and 
amusement.  Then  the  discouraged  employees  began 
to  come  home.  They  were  of  two  classes.  Many  of 
the  early  home-comers  were  the  adventurous  fellows 
who  had  gone  to  Panama  wanting  a new  experience 
and  having  had  it  more  rapidly  than  they  had  antici- 
pated, returned  to  spread  the  discontent.  There  was 
the  other,  and  perhaps  the  more  numerous,  class  who 
had  gone  in  good  faith,  expecting  to  find  conditions  as 
to  health  and  personal  comfort  similar  to  the  United 
States,  and  intending  to  stay.  It  is  likely,  too,  that 
both  classes,  working  as  they  were  for  the  government. 


54. 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


expected  easier  conditions  than  would  obtain  in  private 
employment. 

The  unvarying  tendency  of  the  returning  employees 
was  to  discredit  the  glowing  official  and  semi-official 
reports  which  had  been  made,  and  the  promises  held 
out  of  immunity  from  even  the  common  ailments, 
including  lassitude  and  homesickness.  Then  came 
the  yellow  fever  epidemic  of  the  Summer  of  1905 
and  the  long  period  during  which  the  health  authori- 
ties were  baffled  in  locating  the  focus  of  infection. 
There  was  also  the  disagreeable  evidence  that  per- 
nicious malaria  had  had  time  to  work  havoc  in  many 
strong  constitutions.  The  picture  of  the  panic- 
stricken  groups  struggling  to  get  away  from  Colon 
with  every  vessel  may  have  been  a little  overdrawn, 
but  that  the  feeling  throughout  the  Isthmus  was  one 
of  illy  suppressed  and  contagious  terror  was  undeni- 
able. Yet  to  those  experienced  in  tropical  diseases 
the  mortality  was  not  an  excessive  one,  nor  were  the 
general  health  conditions  bad,  allowance  being  made 
for  surroundings.  The  permanent  hospital  records 
and  vital  statistics  unquestionably  will  show  that  won- 
ders were  really  worked  under  a scientific  and  system- 
atic sanitation  and  provisions  for  conserving  the  health 
of  employees.  But  the  medical  officials  in  their  spirit 
of  hopefulness  had  predicted  freedom  from  the  inevi- 
table diseases  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  the  failure 
of  their  prophecies  caused  the  disappointing  results  to 
be  exaggerated. 

Generally,  during  the  first  year  the  United  States 
suffered  from  too  much  expert  opinion  and  advice 
regarding  engineering  and  administrative  work  of  the 
Canal  and  too  little  practical  application  to  the  task  in 


Ruins  at  Panama 


THE  ISTHMUS  OF  PANAMA  55 


hand.  This  was  not  true  of  the  sanitary  authorities, 
who  worked  harmoniously  and  effectively.  If  only 
they  had  been  more  conservative  in  their  original 
statements,  it  would  have  been  better  for  their  reputa- 
tions as  prophets  of  health.  It  always  is  to  be  re- 
membered that  ditch-digging  in  the  most  humid  and 
rainiest  section  of  the  tropics  cannot  be  made  an  en- 
tirely healthful  occupation,  and  as  fast  as  the  subsoil 
is  turned  up  by  the  steam-shovel  the  earth’s  resent- 
ment at  being  disturbed  will  make  itself  felt.  The 
procurement  of  the  permanent  class  of  employees  and 
laborers  with  the  physical  stamina  and  the  moral  fibre 
which  the  work  of  Canal  construction  requires,  is  nec- 
essarily an  evolution  and  not  the  creation  of  a single 
year.  But  that  class  will  be  evolved,  and  the  under- 
taking will  go  forward. 

My  own  point  of  view  is  twofold.  The  Canal 
insures  the  industrial  development  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  along  the  lines  of  tropical  agriculture.  It 
creates  an  international  commerce  and  it  adds  to  the 
domestic  trade.  It  will  secure  an  increased  perma- 
nent population  to  replace  the  army  of  construction 
when  the  work  of  excavation  shall  be  completed. 
This  is  the  certainty  in  relation  to  the  resources  and 
the  people.  It  will  be  good  for  Panama.  But  there 
is  a wider  good  which  is  not  local.  For  ten  or  twenty 
years  the  Canal  will  be  a training-school  in  which  to 
test  and  strengthen  the  constructive  energy  of  the 
American  character.  Nowhere  will  the  initiative 
faculty  make  greater  demands  on  the  individual. 
For  those  “ who  die  victorious  ” the  tribute  of  Time 
will  be  the  completed  Canal.  For  those  who  live  the 
task  will  be  from  year  to  year  out  of  their  abundant 


56 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


experience  to  help  on  the  industrial  development  of 
adjacent  lands,  among  them  the  West  Coast  coun- 
tries. And  that  is  the  civilization  which  will  sweep 
from  the  Atlantic  through  the  Canal  and  down  the 
Pacific. 


CHAPTER  IV 


A GLIMPSE  OF  ECUADOR 

Tranquil  Ship  Life  — Dissolving  View  of  Panama  Bay  — The 
Comforting  Antarctic  Current  — Seeking  Cotopaxi  and  Chim- 
borazo — Up  the  Guay  as  River  — Activity  in  Guayaquil 
Harbor  — Old  and  New  Town  — Shipping  via  The  Isthmus 
and  Cape  Horn  — Chocolate  and  Rubber  Exports  — Railway 
toward  ^uito  — A Charming  Capital  — Cuenca’s  Industries 
— Cereals  in  the  Inter- Andine  Region  — Forest  District  — 
Minerals  in  the  South  — ■ Population  — Galapagos  Islands  — 
Political  Equilibrium  — National  Finances. 

SHIP  life  along  coast  from  Panama  south  is  dream- 
ful, placid,  nerve-soothing. 

“This  South  Sea,”  wrote  the  Augustine  Friar 
Calancha,  in  his  chronicle  of  the  early  Spanish 
voyagers,  “ is  called  the  Pacific  because,  in  compari- 
son with  the  Atlantic  and  the  Mediterranean,  its 
storms  are  less  violent  and  fewer  and  its  calm  is 
more  tranquil.  It  is  also  called  the  sea  of  drunkards 
because  a drunken  man  might  navigate  in  it.  Both 
oceans  and  ships  are  ruled  over  by  five  beautiful  stars 
in  the  form  of  a cross,  in  a happy  prognostic  of  holy 
domination  over  sea  and  land  — at  the  sight  of  which 
the  devil  even  when  most  enraged  retreats  and  leaves 
all  in  tranquillity.”  This  is  surely  a happy  description 
of  the  quiet  ocean  and  a devout  poet’s  image  of  the 
Southern  Cross. 

The  steamers  are  commodious  floating  Summer 
homes.  The  smooth  waters  of  the  Pacific  make  it 


58 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


possible  to  have  a type  of  vessel  that  would  be  im- 
practicable for  transatlantic  voyages.  Deck  cabins, 
a dining-saloon  on  the  upper  deck,  and  ample  room  are 
properties  of  them  all.  Some  of  the  steamers  are  twin 
screw,  though  such  enterprise  hardly  was  demanded 
by  the  traffic  and  this  type  is  not  so  comfortable  as 
the  single  screw.  From  Panama  to  Valparaiso,  3,100 
miles  by  the  stops,  there  is  rarely  enough  of  a ripple 
to  send  the  most  sensitive  traveller  below  with  symp- 
toms of  sea-sickness. 

The  voyage  is  a marine  trip  along  a great  winding 
Continental  street,  with  stops  at  many  corners  and  turns 
up  many  lanes.  Up  and  down  the  coast  means  put- 
ting into  innumerable  wayports.  This  makes  them 
more  or  less  acquainted  with  one  another,  and  one 
coast  community  feels  an  interest  in  what  is  hap- 
pening in  a neighbor  port  a thousand  miles  away. 
The  vessels  bring  the  gossip,  — usually  of  trade,  of 
the  value  of  the  last  cargo,  of  quarantine,  of  troubles 
with  the  native  longshoremen,  of  disputes  with  the 
minor  officials,  and  of  political  events  or  the  latest 
revolution.  The  through  freight  is  not  yet  sufficient 
for  the  big  steamers  to  omit  the  minor  landings  and 
make  quick  time,  which  could  be  done  if  Guayaquil, 
Callao,  and  Valparaiso  were  the  only  ports  touched. 
This  should  be  a matter  of  eight  or  ten  days  from 
Panama  to  Valparaiso,  whereas  now  it  takes  from 
twenty-one  to  twenty-three  days.  The  time  will  be 
shorter  when  the  through  traffic  developed  by  the 
Panama  Canal  has  had  a chance  to  grow. 

As  the  steamer  threads  its  way  out  into  the  ocean 
through  Panama  Bay,  the  vista  is  of  cone-shaped,  vivid 
green-clad  volcanic  mountains  rising  sheer  out  of  the 


A GLIMPSE  OF  ECUADOR 


59 


water.  On  a disappearing  view  they  look  like  gopher 
mounds  on  the  prairies.  At  sunset  the  sky  is  of 
indigo-blue  and  the  waters  are  a maroon  expanse, 
but  the  next  night  the  great  copper  disk  in  the  west 
burnishes  the  liquid  plain,  which  seethes  at  its  embrace. 

For  two  days  the  voyage  is  apt  to  be  disagreeably 
hot,  though  the  air  rarely  becomes  so  stifling  that 
the  deck  cabins  have  to  be  abandoned.  The  weather 
is  decently  comfortable  in  the  daytime.  The  nights 
may  be  choking,  but  this  does  not  last  long.  The 
third  day  the  equatorial  line  is  crossed,  not  very  far 
out  at  sea  yet  out  of  sight  of  land.  The  Humboldt, 
or  Antarctic,  current  is  met  as  it  sweeps  up  from  Cape 
Horn,  and  its  refreshing  coolness  is  enjoyed  for  the 
remainder  of  the  voyage.  The  only  unpleasant  fea- 
ture is  that  during  the  season  from  April  to  August 
the  fogs  which  hang  over  the  mainland  charge  the 
atmosphere  with  too  much  moisture,  and  there  is  no 
relief  by  their  precipitation  into  rain  ; yet  the  discom- 
fort from  this  cause  is  not  serious. 

Only  the  small  coasting-vessels  put  into  the  minor 
Colombian  and  Ecuadorian  ports.  On  the  Pacific  side 
Colombia  has  but  one  shipping-point  of  consequence 
— Buenaventura,  where  the  bay  bends  in  a deep  inlet. 
It  is  the  gateway  to  the  immensely  rich  country  of 
the  Cauca  and  of  the  overland  route  by  Cali  and  the 
mountain  passes  through  the  Cordilleras  to  Bogota. 

“ It  is  a strange  thing,”  says  my  Lord  Francis 
Bacon,  “that  in  sea  voyages  where  there  is  nothing 
to  be  seen  but  sky  and  sea,  men  should  make  diaries.” 
But  down  the  West  Coast,  after  crossing  the  equatorial 
line,  much  more  than  sky  and  sea  is  to  be  seen  and 
the  diary-maker  need  not  be  furtive  in  his  occupation. 


CO 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


On  the  larger  steamers  one  is  always  straining  the  eyes 
for  Ecuador’s  famous  volcanoes,  Cotopaxi  and  Chim- 
borazo. They  are  not  often  visible  from  the  sea, 
though  Cotopaxi  is  sometimes  to  be  discerned.  One 
evening  I thought  I caught  a glimpse  of  one  of  these 
giant  summits.  It  was  towards  sunset.  Off  shore 
was  a seeming  range  of  peaked  clouds,  then  through 
a pink  mist  a sloping  green  and  brown  profile  dis- 
closed Itself ; after  that  bolder  conical  elevations,  a 
dim  fringe  of  them,  and  finally  an  unmistakable  crown. 
“ It  is  Monte  Cristo,”  the  ship’s  mate  told  me.  “ We 
are  in  the  Bay  of  Caracas.”  The  chalk-like  surface 
was  of  sheer  cliffs  sliced  as  by  a knife  and  with  a 
fleece  spreading  alongside  half-way  up  to  the  summit. 
“ Snow  ? ” “ Oh,  no  ; only  the  surf.” 

We  are  not  more  than  ten  miles  off  shore,  but 
Monte  Cristo  dominates  as  though  it  were  one  of  the 
colossal  volcanoes.  The  vapors  close  in,  the  ribbons 
of  gold  in  the  western  sky  unroll  themselves  and  are 
lost.  It  is  night,  and  our  last  chance  of  seeing  Coto- 
paxi is  gone. 

The  voyage  up  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil  and  the 
Guayas  River  gives  a vista  of  conical  and  pinnacled 
hills  of  living  green,  sparkling  in  their  verdure  like 
raindrops  on  the  leaves  when  the  sun  comes  out  after  a 
thunder  shower.  The  gulf  narrows,  and  the  point  is 
rounded  at  the  Island  of  Puna,  which  is  the  Ecuador- 
ian customs  and  quarantine  port.  There  are  bathing- 
houses  and  pretty  Summer  or  Winter  homes, — we 
do  not  know  which,  for  we  realize  that  under  the 
Equator  there  are  no  seasons.  Beyond  Puna  the  river 
is  hardly  more  than  half  a mile  across  from  one  low 
bank  to  the  opposite  low  bank.  These  are  bordered 


1 


The  Wharf  at  Duran 


f ■ ‘..j 

■■Va.  r- 


jI  V 

f 


■i 


A GLIMPSE  OF  ECUADOR 


61 


with  algaroba  trees  and  cocoanut  palms.  There  are 
open  pastures  and  some  neat  houses,  with  ridges  of 
mountains  in  the  background,  brown  and  green.  The 
borders  of  the  river  are  pleasant,  but  the  miasma  seems 
to  hang  over  the  land  like  a steaming  blanket,  and  one 
gets  the  impression  of  malaria,  — which  impression  is 
a correct  one. 

Lower  Guayaquil  is  first  seen,  then  the  sloping  part 
of  the  city  proper.  The  big  rectangular  building  in 
the  saddle  of  the  hills,  the  most  prominent  of  all  the 
structures,  is  the  famous  hospital,  — a comforting  re- 
flection for  strangers  who  have  heard  of  Guayaquil’s 
yellow  fever  record  and  are  told  grewsome  tales  of  the 
epidemics.  Fewer  than  eight  cases  in  the  hospital 
count  as  a cipher,  and  ships  get  a clean  bill  of  health. 
The  profile  of  peaks  back  of  the  town  apparently  is 
not  very  high,  and  the  valleys  open  gently  between 
them.  A closer  view  of  the  city  from  the  ship’s  deck 
shows  that  it  is  not  such  a bad  sort  of  tropical  port. 
Church  spires  and  domes  are  many,  and  some  very 
handsome  buildings  are  discernible. 

The  harbor  is  full  of  maritime  life.  Pointed  shoe- 
like canoes  and  sail-boats  are  constantly  shooting 
around,  while  farther  down  the  river  are  the  balsas^  or 
house  rafts,  with  their  tenants,  including  men  and 
women,  children,  poultry,  pigs,  and  other  accessories. 
The  timbers  of  these  house  rafts  are  from  a native 
wood  of  the  cork  variety,  said  to  be  unsinkable. 
Apparently  the  living  occupants  of  the  rafts  also  are 
of  cork,  tumbling  off  into  the  water  and  bobbing  about 
just  as  easily.  I did  not  hear  of  any  of  them,  even 
the  smallest,  being  drowned.  I noted  the  old  Ameri- 
can river-boat  patterns,  and  could  imagine  myself  on 


62 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


the  Mississippi  or  the  Ohio,  except  that  this  craft  is 
even  more  blunt  as  to  outline  and  more  tub-like  than 
anything  that  ever  floated  down  from  Pittsburg  or 
St.  Paul. 

The  crooked  old  part  of  the  city  is  attractive  in  its 
picturesqueness,  and  is  inviting  at  a distance.  The 
newer  section  is  so  regular  as  to  be  uninteresting. 
The  Guayaquil  climate  is  trying  to  foreigners, 
though  many  of  them  manage  to  acclimate  themselves. 
The  mean  temperature  is  8i°  Fahrenheit.  The  ex- 
tremes in  the  shade  are  90°  and  65°.  During  two  or 
three  days  in  the  harbor  it  seemed  to  me  that  there 
was  but  one  extreme  and  that  the  maximum. 

The  city,  in  addition  to  its  commerce,  has  a number 
of  local  industries  which  include  sugar-mills,  breweries 
and  distilleries,  tanneries,  foundries,  saw-mills,  and 
shipbuilding  and  repair  shops.  Besides  the  balsas 
small  vessels  built  of  the  native  timber  are  constructed 
in  Guayaquil. 

Guayaquil  is  a city  of  60,000  inhabitants,  the  most 
populous  port  south  of  San  Francisco,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Valparaiso.  About  300  foreign  vessels,  with  a 
tonnage  varying  from  360,000  to  375,000,  enter  and 
clear  the  port  every  year.  The  coasting  commerce 
employs  a considerable  number  of  small  vessels, — 
2,000,  whose  tonnage  aggregates  from  22,000  to  23,000. 
The  relation  of  the  port  to  a waterway  across  the 
Isthmus  appears  very  clearly  from  the  statement  of 
the  distances,  which  may  be  repeated.  From  Guaya- 
quil to  New  York  around  Cape  Horn  is  11,470  miles, 
and  the  time  required  for  the  steam  cargo  vessels 
varies  from  60  to  74  days.  From  Guayaquil  to  Pan- 
ama is  835  miles,  and  to  New  York  by  this  route  it 


A GLIMPSE  OF  ECUADOR 


63 


will  be  2,864  miles,  or  to  New  Orleans  2,263  miles. 
The  time  now  required,  allowing  for  transshipment  by 
the  railway  and  the  consequent  unloading  and  reload- 
ing of  the  freight,  varies  from  14  to  20  days.  With 
through  water  communication  and  the  advantages 
which  will  justify  supplying  coal  for  faster  trips,  the 
time  need  not  exceed  eight  or  nine  days.  From 
Guayaquil  to  Liverpool  via  Cape  Horn  is  10,795 
miles;  to  Havre,  10,577  miles;  to  Hamburg,  11,203 
miles.  The  difference  in  maritime  advantage  is  ex- 
hibited by  the  subtraction  of  the  distance  from  Panama 
or  Colon  to  those  ports. 

In  years  when  no  long-continued  quarantine  inter- 
rupts the  commercial  movement,  the  imports  vary 
from  17,000,000  to  $7,500,000,  and  the  exports  are 
$9,000,000  to  $9,300,000.  In  1904  the  imports  were 
$7,670,000,  and  the  exports  $11,642,000.  Relatively, 
90  per  cent  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  Ecuador  passes 
through  Guayaquil.  It  is  the  entrepot  for  the  interior 
region  and  also  for  much  of  the  coast.  Esmeraldas  in 
the  north  has  a little  foreign  trade,  and  also  Machala 
in  the  south.  But  their  imports  and  exports  hardly 
affect  the  volume  of  commerce  that  is  concentrated 
in  Guayaquil. 

One-third  of  the  world’s  supply  of  cacao,  or  choco- 
late, is  had  from  Ecuador,  and  this  is  measured  by 
shipments  through  Guayaquil  of  450,000  to  550,000 
quintals,  or  45,450,000  pounds  to  55,550,000  pounds. 
In  one  year,  of  a total  crop  of  499,000  quintals,  456,000 
were  exported  through  this  port.  In  a later  year 
the  value  of  the  cacao  exported  was  $7,624,000.  A 
large  section  of  the  cacao-producing  region  is  directly 
tributary  to  the  city.  The  exportations  of  vegetable 


64 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


ivory  — the  tagua  or  ivory  nut  of  commerce  — vary 
from  39,000,000  pounds  to  44,000,000  pounds  annu- 
ally, valued  at  from  $600,000  to  $750,000,  accord- 
ing to  the  market  price.  In  one  very  successful  year 
the  value  was  $1,100,000.  For  the  last  year  given  the 
exports  of  crude  rubber  reached  1,100,000  pounds, 
valued  at  $600,000.  The  United  States  takes  75 
per  cent  and  upwards  of  the  rubber  product.  The 
coffee  shipments  were  worth  $500,000.  There  is  also 
a considerable  export  trade  in  the  various  kinds  of 
straw  and  felt  hats  which  are  manufactured  in  the 
interior.  Hides  are  also  an  article  of  export. 

The  statistics  of  production  and  of  the  foreign  trade 
are  compiled  by  the  Guayaquil  Chamber  of  Commerce, 
a very  progressive  institution  in  a country  that  is 
not  excessively  enterprising  in  exhibiting  the  natural 
resources.  From  the  figures  supplied  me  by  the 
Chamber,  I found  that  the  United  States  enjoyed  a 
fair  proportion  of  the  Ecuador  commerce.  France 
takes  the  larger  portion  of  the  chocolate  and  coffee, 
but  the  United  States  furnishes  Ecuador  a market 
to  the  amount  of  $2,250,000  to  $2,600,000  annually, 
and  ships  goods  in  about  the  same  proportion. 
Germany  received  in  one  year  about  $2,150,000; 
Great  Britain,  $2,000,000.  In  the  imports  England 
has  the  advantage  over  all  others  in  cottons  and 
woollens.  The  heaviest  item  in  the  exports  from  the 
United  States  to  Ecuador  is  provisions,  which  amount 
to  $500, 000  yearly.  Petroleum,  lumber,  machinery, 
and  hardware  also  find  a market. 

This  United  States  trade  and  all  the  foreign  com- 
merce of  Guayaquil  are  so  essentially  a Panama  Canal 
traffic  that  their  details  do  not  call  for  analysis.  In  the 


Weed-killer  Plant,  Guayaquil  and  Quito  Railway 


Railway  Spraying  Cart 


A GLIJMPSE  OF  ECUADOR 


65 


increase  of  the  future  the  largest  proportion  belongs 
to  the  United  States. 

The  ambitious  project  of  a railway  to  connect 
Guayaquil  with  Quito,  the  capital,  was  many  years 
in  assuming  form,  but  the  narrow-gauge  line  is 
creeping  to  Quito.  The  railway  starts  at  Duran, 
on  the  bay  across  from  Guayaquil,  and  runs  eastward 
through  a very  rich  agricultural  plateau  to  Alausi, 
8o  miles  distant,  where  it  bends  to  the  north.  The 
tropical  vegetation  of  foliage  and  weeds  along  the  road- 
bed is  so  very  luxuriant  that  the  railway  company 
has  found  it  necessary  to  erect  a plant  midway  in  the 
hothouse  belt  for  preparing  and  distributing,  by  a 
process  of  spraying,  a solution  composed  of  arsenic  and 
nitre.  By  means  of  vats  and  steam-pipes  the  ingre- 
dients are  boiled  and  dissolved  into  a strong  solution, 
which  is  drawn  off  into  a large  tank,  similar  in  con- 
struction to  a regular  railway  water-tank,  from  which 
the  spraying-car  is  filled.  When  the  rainy  season 
opens,  the  weed-killing  plant  begins  its  operations, 
spraying  the  roadbed  at  regular  intervals.  This  is  a 
very  interesting  feature  of  tropical  railway  operation. 

The  road  surmounted  the  greatest  engineering  dif- 
ficulties when  it  reached  Guamote,  115  miles  from 
Guayaquil ; and  the  mountain  section  was  completed 
so  that  trains  could  be  hoisted  from  the  coast  level 
to  the  Andine  plateau,  a sheer  vertical  distance  of 
almost  two  miles.  The  railway  will  cheapen  the  traffic 
both  for  imported  merchandise  and  for  exports. 

The  corporation  had  an  up-and-down  financial  his- 
tory. The  railway  construction  was  begun,  or  rather 
a local  line  was  continued,  by  Americans  who  secured 
the  concession  from  the  government  of  Ecuador, 

5 


66 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


the  money  being  furnished  mainly  by  Glasgow  and 
London  capitalists.  The  Americans  who  held  the 
concession  had  frequent  difficulties,  not  only  with  the 
bondholders  but  with  the  contractors  and  the  laborers. 
The  work  of  excavation  and  grading  was  done  by 
Jamaica  negroes.  The  nation  guaranteed  the  bonds 
of  the  railway,  and  by  a somewhat  subtle  process 
the  government  debt  was  funded  into  these  railway 
bonds  which  are  a second  mortgage  on  the  customs 
duties.  The  obligations  were  issued  as  the  respective 
sections  of  the  railway  were  completed.  Notwith- 
standing the  frequent  financial  difficulties  of  the  contrac- 
tors and  of  the  English  bondholders,  the  government 
paid  the  interest,  6 per  cent,  regularly. 

Quito  is  accounted  by  all  travellers,  in  what  relates 
to  climate  and  picturesqueness,  one  of  the  most  charm- 
ing capitals  in  South  America.  It  lies  in  the  central 
plateau,  at  an  elevation  of  9,371  feet.  Though  an 
ancient  and  historic  capital,  it  has  been  modernized 
by  electricity.  The  city  has  a population  of  80,000, 
and  supports  a variety  of  local  industries,  including 
flour-mills,  woollen  mills,  potteries,  sugar  refineries, 
and  small  manufactories  of  Indian  felt  hats;  yet  it  is 
chiefly  interesting  as  the  seat  of  government.  Forty 
years  ago  a German- American,  Frederick  Hassaurek, 
who  had  represented  the  United  States  as  Minister  and 
Consul-General,  wrote  his  impressions  of  Quito  and 
its  people,^  and  there  has  been  little  to  add  since  then. 

One  leaf  from  the  Quito  municipal  records  may  be 
worth  extracting.  The  Cabildo,  or  Council,  under 
date  of  August  16,  1538,  adopted  this  resolution: 

^ Four  Tears  among  the  South  Americans,  by  F.  Hassaurek,  Cincin- 
nati, 1865. 


A GLIMPSE  OF  ECUADOR 


67 


“ Since  the  arrival  at  Quito  of  a certain  attorney,  Bachiler 
Guevara,  many  suits  have  been  stirred  up  whereby,  as  there 
was  no  other  attorney  in  the  town,  many  persons  might  lose 
their  legal  rights ; and  therefore  the  said  Bachiler  Guevara  is 
forbidden  to  exercise  his  profession,  or  to  give  advice  or  his 
opinion  on  any  controversy  or  matter  of  litigation,  under  pen- 
alty of  100  pesos  for  the  first  offence  and  one  year’s  banish- 
ment for  the  second  offence.” 

Cuenca,  in  southern  Ecuador,  is  an  important  in- 
dustrial and  commercial  centre.  It  has  between  25,000 
and  30,000  inhabitants,  and  is  surrounded  by  a rich 
agricultural  and  stock-raising  district.  It  is  seeking 
a railway  outlet  to  Machala  on  the  coast ; but  in  the 
course  of  years  it  will  have  railway  communication 
with  Quito,  for  the  route  is  a natural  one  for  com- 
merce along  the  central  plateau.  This  location  is  a 
link  in  the  ultimate  Pan-American  Railway  trunk  line. 
From  Cuenca  to  a junction  with  the  railway  already 
built  from  Duran  beyond  Guamote  is  less  than  100 
miles. 

Misunderstanding  of  the  topography  of  Ecuador 
causes  the  country’s  resources  to  be  underestimated. 
By  many  persons  no  account  is  taken  of  any  section 
except  the  humid  and  productive  coast  lands.  But 
there  is  the  vastly  productive  inter-Andine  region 
between  the  two  chains  of  the  Cordilleras.  The  trans- 
verse ranges  between  these  two  Cordilleras  have  the 
appearance  of  knots,  and  are  generally  described  as 
the  nudos.  They  do  not  offer  insuperable  obstacles 
to  railway  construction  and  other  interior  develop- 
ment, though  ordinary  roads  are  lacking. 

All  the  cereals  are  grown  in  this  central  plateau  ly- 
ing under  the  torrid  zone  at  an  altitude  of  10,000  feet. 


68 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


It  is  the  growing  of  corn,  wheat,  and  other  grains  at 
these  heights  which  causes  the  Spanish  writers,  with 
their  warm  imaginations,  to  write  so  enthusiastically 
of  cultivation  in  the  clouds.  The  region  offers  great 
opportunities  for  stock-raising,  and  generally  it  may 
be  said  to  be  the  field  for  future  immigration  and 
colonization.  Public  officials  of  Ecuador  glow  with 
enthusiasm  over  this  section  of  their  country.  A 
cabinet  minister,  in  his  official  report,  thus  poetically 
and  prophetically  voiced  the  national  aspiration: 

“ Not  much  time  will  have  passed  when  the  inter-Andine 
railway,  vanquishing  all  the  obstacles  which  have  halted  our 
progressive  march,  will  salute  the  wall  of  the  Andes  and  come 
with  the  whistle  of  the  locomotive  to  awaken  the  spirit,  almost 
dead,  of  our  mountain  populations  to  the  civilizing  influence 
of  industry  and  commerce,  giving  easy  outlet  to  the  richness  of 
our  fertile  zones,  and  assuring  us  a broader  life  by  placing  us 
in  immediate  contact  with  the  coast  and  bringing  us  nearer 
to  the  exterior  at  will,  multiply  the  relations  of  common  inter- 
est, break  the  yoke  of  preoccupations  and  routine  custom  to 
which  we  have  submitted  blindingly,  and  will  stimulate  us  for 
work,  and  supply  the  deficiencies  of  our  education. 

“ The  line  of  iron  and  steel  will  traverse  our  climates  and 
will  go  collecting  in  its  train  diverse  productions,  to  bear  them 
to  our  ports  and  deliver  them  to  the  commerce  of  the  world. 
The  struggle  for  subsistence  will  then  be  borne  among  the 
peoples  of  the  interior,  and  from  province  to  province  will  be 
established  reciprocally  the  interchange  beneficial  to  their  re- 
spective provinces.” 

The  Montana,  or  forest  region  lying  on  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  Andes  and  with  its  network  of  river  basins 
stretching  to  the  Amazon,  is  less  exploited  in  the  Ecua- 
dorian than  in  the  Peruvian  territory.  The  rubber 


A GLIMPSE  OF  ECUADOR 


69 


in  these  tropical  forests  will  be  secured  in  the  pro- 
cess of  time.  The  development  of  this  region  on  the 
part  of  Ecuador  is  not  remote.  But  there  must  be 
means  of  communication.  The  government,  realizing 
this,  decided  to  build  a railway  from  Ambato,  on 
the  Guayaquil  and  Quito  Railroad,  lOO  miles  to  the 
Curarey  River,  a branch  of  the  Amazon  with  head- 
waters near  Iquitos  in  Peru.  This  line  will  enable 
that  district  to  export  its  rubber  through  Guayaquil 
instead  of  out  through  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  rail- 
way route  lies  east  of  the  Andes. 

Tobacco  is  grown  in  the  north  near  the  coast  for 
home  consumption.  Sugar-cane  is  cultivated  success- 
fully on  the  nearer  border  of  the  Montana  and  also 
nearer  the  coast,  but  it  will  be  a long  time  before 
Ecuador  exports  sugar  in  appreciable  quantities.  This 
may  be  less  true  of  cotton,  which  is  becoming  a national 
industry.  A fine  quality  is  grown  in  the  northern  dis- 
tricts, of  which  Ibarra  is  the  centre,  and  the  cotton  tree 
thrives  in  other  sections.  The  mills,  which  employ 
the  cheap  labor  of  the  native  Indian  women,  have 
proven  successful,  and  they  find  a profitable  home 
market,  though  it  will  be  many  years  before  Manches- 
ter is  seriously  hurt  by  their  output. 

The  minerals  of  the  country  are  principally  in  the 
southern  zone,  though  there  are  rich  placers  in  the 
rivers  of  the  north.  The  southern  province,  of  which 
Zaruma  is  the  centre,  in  the  last  century  was  famous 
for  its  gold-mines,  and  it  is  still  known  as  El  Oro,  or 
the  gold  country.  In  late  years  little  has  been  done, 
though  the  quartz  veins  have  been  worked  intermit- 
tently and  in  some  of  the  streams  gold-washing  has 
been  carried  on.  Minerals  are  abundant  farther  south 


70 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


in  the  district  of  which  Loja  is  the  centre.  Some  cop- 
per  is  found,  and  there  are  deposits  of  iron  and  anthra- 
cite coal,  silver,  and  lead.  The  engineers  who  made 
the  Intercontinental  Railway  survey  were  impressed 
with  the  richness  of  this  district,  but  its  development 
awaits  the  building  of  the  links  in  the  Pan-American 
railroad,  for  the  lack  of  transport  facilities  under  pres- 
ent conditions  renders  exploitation  of  the  mines  too 
costly  to  be  attempted  except  with  large  capital. 

In  proportion  to  its  size  Ecuador,  though  sparsely 
populated,  is  as  well  inhabited  as  other  South  Ameri- 
can countries.  The  population  is  very  largely  Indian, 
with  the  usual  Spanish  intermixture.  The  total  num- 
ber of  inhabitants  is  1,275,000.  The  whites  and  the 
mestizos^  or  mixed  bloods,  comprise  about  25  per  cent 
of  the  population.  The  central  plateau  easily  could 
sustain  an  agricultural  population  of  twice  that  number. 

The  volcanic  Galapagos  Islands,  lying  600  to  700 
miles  west  of  the  mainland,  on  the  equatorial  line, 
usually  are  considered  an  Ecuadorian  asset.  They  are 
not,  however,  a source  of  revenue,  and  the  300  or  400 
people  who  inhabit  them  are  not  likely  to  increase  to 
a larger  number.  At  different  times  the  government 
has  been  willing  to  dispose  of  the  islands  under  the 
form  of  a perpetual  lease  for  coaling  or  naval  stations. 
Tentative  offers  have  been  made  in  Europe,  but 
European  governments  hardly  would  seek  to  lease 
them  for  naval  purposes  without  ascertaining  the 
wishes  of  the  United  States.  Since  the  Monroe  Doc- 
trine as  interpreted  under  President  Roosevelt’s  ad- 
ministration forbids  military  establishments  of  foreign 
Powers  to  be  set  up  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere, 
no  European  country  is  likely  to  come  into  their 


Cacao  Trees 


A GLIMPSE  OF  ECUADOR 


71 


possession.  Naval  officers  on  various  occasions  have 
urged  the  purchase  of  the  Galapagos  group  by  the 
United  States,  but  the  high  price  at  which  they  are  held 
by  Ecuador,  or  opposition  in  Washington,  prevented  a 
bargain.  The  last  negotiation  was  by  Secretary  Blaine 
during  the  Harrison  administration.  With  the  au- 
thority of  the  United  States  established  on  the  Canal 
Zone  and  with  the  Pearl  Islands  in  Panama  Bay  un- 
der the  same  authority,  the  necessary  naval  base  in  the 
Pacific  is  secured,  and  no  further  suggestions  for  pur- 
chasing the  Galapagos  group  are  likely  to  be  favored 
by  public  sentiment.  The  only  ground  would  be 
that,  through  the  control  by  the  United  States,  Euro- 
pean intrigues  and,  possibly,  complications  would  be 
avoided. 

Chile  at  different  times  has  been  credited  with  want- 
ing to  control  the  Galapagos  Islands  and  establish  a 
naval  base  at  the  Equator.  Since  the  Chilean  national 
policy  is  no  longer  one  of  unlimited  naval  expansion, 
it  may  be  doubted  whether  that  country  now  would 
care  to  undertake  the  expense  of  establishing  and 
maintaining  a station  off  Ecuador.  But  should  Chile 
take  this  course,  probably  there  would  be  no  objection 
on  the  part  of  the  United  States,  which,  in  the  broad 
sense,  as  related  to  Europe,  is  a party  in  interest  with 
Ecuador. 

Of  recent  years  Ecuador  has  maintained  political 
equilibrium,  if  not  absolute  political  stability.  Presi- 
dent Alfaro  during  his  term  was  compelled  to  com- 
bat the  reactionaries  and  the  Church  party,  but 
his  programme  of  Liberal  measures  was  sustained. 
The  greatest  progress  that  has  been  made  is  toward 
financial  stability.  The  money  of  the  country  was 


72 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


put  on  the  gold  basis,  and  that  having  been  main- 
tained for  several  years,  the  promise  of  its  continuance 
is  encouraging.  The  standard  of  coinage  is  the  gold 
condor^  equal  to  the  English  sovereign  in  weight  and 
fineness.  The  common  circulating  medium  is  the 
silver  sucre,  ten  of  which  constitute  the  condor,  or  the 
pound  sterling.  The  sucre  is  equal  to  48.66  cents. 
Paper  money  is  circulated,  but  the  outstanding  issue 
is  not  very  large.  There  are  two  banks  of  emission, 
each  of  which  has  a capital  of  3,000,000  sucres.  By 
the  last  report  the  total  amount  of  bills  emitted  was 

6.356.000  sucres. 

The  Ecuador  banks  do  a profitable  business  in 
international  exchange.  The  Guayaquil  institutions 
regularly  pay  14  and  15  per  cent  dividends.  Their 
deposits  in  the  period  from  1898  to  1904  rose  from 

20.688.000  to  31,492,000  sucres. 


CHAPTER  V 

PERUVIAN  SHORE  TOWNS 

Pizarro's  Landing-Place  at  Tumbez  — Last  Sight  of  the  Green 
Coast  — Paita’s  Spacious  Bay  — Lively  Harbor  Scenes  — An 
Interesting  and  Sandy  Town  — Its  Climatic  and  Other  Legends 
— Future  Amazon  Gateway  — Sugar  and  Rice  Ports  — Eten 
and  Pacasmayo  — Transcontinental  Trail  — Cajamarca  — 
Chimbote's  Naval  Advantages  — Supers  Attractions  — An- 
coAs  Historic  Treaty  — Callao's  Excellent  Harbor  — Impor- 
tance of  the  Shippmg  — Customs  Collections  — Pisco's  Varied 
Products  — Rough  Seas  at  Mollendo  — Bolivian  and  Peru- 
vian Commerce  for  the  Canal. 

WE  steamed  out  of  the  Guayas  River  and  into 
the  Zambelli  Channel  for  Tumbez  by  moon- 
light one  evening.  A hazy  ridge  lay  directly  in  front 
of  us,  “ Isla  de  Plata,”  or  little  Silver  Island,  where 
the  Spanish  pirates  buried  their  plunder.  The  gold 
and  silver  have  not  yet  been  found.  So  many  treas- 
ure islands  with  the  buried  booty  of  the  buccaneers 
lie  off  the  Pacific  coast  that  one  does  not  have  time 
to  stop  and  exploit  them  all. 

I always  take  a long  look  at  Tumbez.  There  is 
not  much  to  see,  — a low  crest  of  mountains  some- 
where inland ; a long  line  of  sandy  beach  bordered 
by  mangroves  and  algaroba  trees ; a slit  in  the  fringe 
of  foliage,  which  is  the  mouth  of  the  river ; and 
a monotonous  stretch  of  watery  greenness.  Back 
among  the  bushes,  hidden,  is  the  port.  A fev/  small 
sail-launches  are  hovering  around,  and  after  a time 


74  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 

the  port  official  conies  out  to  the  ship  in  one  of 
them. 

Tumbez  is  historic.  Somewhere  among  these  man- 
grove trees  Pizarro  and  his  hardy  followers  penetrated 
with  their  boat  one  day  and  began  that  wonderful 
march  known  as  the  Conquest  of  Peru.  And  Tum- 
bez lies  just  over  the  line  from  Ecuador  in  what  is 
still  Peru  and  what  was  then  the  Empire  of  the  Incas. 
Pizarro  stretched  his  iron  claws  not  only  south  to 
Cuzco  but  north  to  Quito.  But  I shall  not  recount 

Omf 

history.  Tumbez  may  be  viewed  to  revive  historic 
memories,  but  also  it  should  claim  a lingering  look  in 
order  to  keep  alive  a sense  of  the  freshness  of  Nature. 
After  it  there  is  no  green  on  the  coast,  — only  rugged 
mountain  masses,  sand-hills,  and  towering  snow-peaks. 
After  Tumbez  the  coast  chains  of  the  Andes  and  the 
sublimity  of  Nature  at  rest,  frowning  but  always  ma- 
jestic. Sometimes  the  brown  cliffs  with  cavernous 
mouths  rising  sheer  from  the  water,  and  then  the  pla- 
teau between  this  wall  and  the  Coast  Range.  Oftener 
the  sandy  plain  stretching  from  the  shore  to  the  lower 
flanks  of  the  Cordilleras  ; beyond,  the  table-land ; and 
then  the  lofty  profiles  of  everlasting  hills  made  loftier 
to  the  sight  by  the  one  range  having  another  for  its 
background. 

The  view  of  Paita  after  entering  the  expansive  bay 
is  a vision  ranged  by  sand-hills.  To  the  left  are  a 
hazy  mountain,  and  a long  reach  of  earth  platforms, 
rocks,  sand,  and  clay,  rising  longitudinally.  To  the 
right  the  land  mounts  to  one  level  with  torn  sides  like 
gravel  viscera.  The  whole  forms  the  rim  of  a bowl. 
The  town  hangs  over  the  water’s  edge  like  a drooping 
willow  tree.  The  buildings  are  cream-colored. 


PERUVIAN  SHORE  TOWNS 


75 


The  harbor  is  full  of  life.  There  are  many  small 
schooners  and  floats  for  loading  cattle  sail  rafts,  and 
bobbing  canoes  with  keg-like  anchors.  A cloud  of 
whirling  sea-gulls  hangs  over  the  bay  seeking  the 
spoils  of  the  kitchen  refuse.  The  captain  of  the  port 
in  brilliant  uniform  comes  out  with  his  crew  in  their 
white  caps,  blue  blouses,  and  red  trousers,  as  though 
they  were  manning  a Roman  emperor’s  barge.  The 
steamer  is  received,  and  then  twoscore  rowboats  make 
for  the  vessel.  The  pirates  board  it.  They  are  the 
fleteros,  or  boatmen,  who  must  be  braved  and  pacified 
at  every  port  on  the  Pacific,  for  there  is  no  other 
means  of  getting  ashore.  “ A tierra^  a tierra,  Senor, 
— To  land,  to  land.  Sir,”  they  cry.  One  of  them  has 
you  before  you  know  it,  and  you  are  in  the  town. 

Meantime  the  women  pirates  have  swarmed  over 
the  ship.  They  have  all  kinds  of  wares  for  sale,  clay 
drinking-vessels,  knick-knacks,  limes  and  other  fruits, 
and  the  Panama  hats,  for  the  manufacture  of  which  this 
district  is  celebrated.  But  we  may  leave  them  while 
we  go  ashore.  There  are  a custom-house  and  gov- 
ernment warehouse,  good  piers  and  wharves,  and  a 
passable  hotel.  A group  of  stocky  soldiers,  in  part 
police  and  in  part  army,  are  in  blue  uniforms  with 
heavy  cartridge  belts.  All  their  faces  are  of  the  In- 
dian type. 

The  life  of  Paita  is  seen  in  the  market-place  among  - 
the  chattering  women  venders  and  their  customers. 
All  is  animated,  good-natured,  obliging,  but  it  is 
chiefly  Indian  with  very  little  of  the  Spanish  trace. 
The  houses  are  of  mortar,  adobe,  wild  cane,  or  bamboo 
laths,  some  having  mud  roofs,  and  they  are  not  bad 
dwellings.  We  go  on  a trip  of  exploration  and  find 


76 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


a really  clean  town  — that  is,  as  clean  as  a town  can 
be  that  is  swept  by  constant  sand-storms  — and  evi- 
dences of  good  local  administration.  A hum  like 
all  the  bees  of  the  universe  proves  to  be  merely  the 
murmur  from  the  open  school-room.  There  are 
two  churches,  one  of  cathedral  architecture  and  a 
more  modern  one  with  a wooden  steeple  like  a Con- 
gregational meeting-house  in  New  England.  In  the 
plaza  a forlorn  but  determined  effort  is  made  to  coax 
Nature.  Some  palm  blades  are  enclosed,  and  around 
the  borders  are  scraggy  carnations  and  scrub  roses, 
while  in  the  centre  are  Kansas  sunflowers.  Many 
of  the  dwellings  also  have  climbing  vines,  dusty  yet 
still  green. 

Paita  is  historic  in  the  annals  of  the  West  Coast  on 
account  of  the  legends  that  have  been  grouped  around 
it.  Most  of  them  relate  to  its  dryness.  The  rain  is 
said  never  to  fall.  This  is  not  quite  correct,  but  dif- 
ficulty is  experienced  in  finding  when  a shower  may 
be  expected.  On  my  first  visit  after  returning  to  the 
ship  I casually  mentioned  at  the  dinner-table  the  in- 
formation given  me  by  an  old  inhabitant  that  it  rained 
every  seven  years.  The  polite  German  merchant  from 
Lima  corrected  me  with  an  apology.  “You  didn’t 
quite  understand  the  gentleman,”  he  said.  “He 
told  you  that  it  had  n’t  rained  for  seven  years  and 
they  did  n’t  look  for  rain  for  another  seven  years.” 
After  a while  the  Swiss  drummer  came  aboard  just 
in  time  for  coffee.  “Think  of  it,”  he  remarked,  “it 
only  rains  in  this  place  once  in  twenty-one  years.” 
From  later  and  reliable  sources  of  information  I 
learned  that  rainfall  can  be  looked  for  with  a reason- 
able degree  of  expectation  about  every  fourteen  years 


PERUVIAN  SHORE  TOWNS 


77 


in  the  Piura  desert,  though  the  moisture  sometimes 
dries  before  it  reaches  Paita  and  the  coast.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  is  77°  Fahrenheit. 

One  of  the  legendary  libels  which  has  clustered 
around  Paita  is  that  of  the  endless  flock  of  goats. 
The  basis  of  this  legend  is  that  the  goats  are  driven 
down  to  the  port  to  water,  and  by  the  time  they  get 
back  in  the  foothills  they  are  so  thirsty  they  have  to 
return,  and  thus  the  procession  is  continuous.  Seeing 
a long  flock  of  them  filing  through  one  of  the  town 
streets  and  waiting  in  vain  for  the  rear-guard  to  pass, 
the  legend  does  seem  to  have  a basis  in  truth,  but  it 
is  a perversion  or  exaggeration  of  facts. 

Another  libel  is  that  the  little  dwarf  palm  which  is 
seen  at  the  top  of  the  highest  hill  is  not  a palm  at  all, 
but  only  a slab  of  boards  painted  in  imitation,  so  that 
the  inhabitants  may  believe  that  a tree  can  grow  in 
that  soil.  Actually  it  is  a palm  and  not  a painted 
post.  Moreover,  there  are  real  trees.  I found  a 
group  of  the  hardy  pepper  trees  just  back  of  the 
town,  where  the  foothills  branch  off,  and  also  some 
acacias,  or  thorn  bushes. 

But  while  it  is  libelled,  Paita  also  accepts  some  of 
the  stories  which  are  circulated  concerning  it.  One  is 
that  of  the  English  consul  or  commercial  agent  who 
had  lived  there  forty  years.  When  his  pension  and 
retirement  came,  he  went  to  his  old  home  in  England, 
announcing  that  he  would  spend  his  remaining  days 
in  the  grassy  downs  where  his  boyhood  had  been 
passed  and  would  be  laid  away  in  the  green  ceme- 
tery of  his  native  village.  In  six  months  he  was  back 
in  Paita,  declaring  that  it  was  the  only  place  in  the 
world  in  which  to  live  and  die.  In  the  course 


78 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


of  nature  the  old  gentleman  passed  away  at  a very 
advanced  age,  and  was  given  the  largest  funeral  that 
Paita  ever  had  known. 

Passing  from  these  legends,  Paita,  which  is  now 
a town  of  5,000  or  6,000  inhabitants,  has  a future 
as  the  emporium  of  northern  Peru.  It  will  be  the 
Pacific  gateway  to  the  Panama  Canal  for  the  Amazon 
country.  Its  splendid  sheltered  bay,  with  all  the  fa- 
cilities for  docks  and  wharves  and  sea-room  for  the 
commercial  fleets  of  a dozen  nations,  assures  its  future 
greatness.  It  once  was  the  rendezvous  of  the  Yankee 
whaling-fleets.  The  railroad  runs  60  miles  back  to 
Piura,  the  largest  interior  city  of  northern  Peru,  which 
has  a population  of  15,000.  Piura  is  the  centre  of 
the  cotton-growing  district,  and  with  the  extension  of 
the  irrigating  systems  the  cotton  product  alone  will 
give  Paita  a considerable  commerce.  The  total  of 
its  imports  and  exports  is  between  1 1,400,000  and 
$1,500,000  annually.  The  certainty  of  the  railway 
being  extended  as  far  as  the  Pongo,  or  Falls  of  Man- 
serriche  on  the  Maranon  River  400  miles  distant,  is 
to  be  viewed  as  one  means  of  diverting  the  rubber 
and  other  commerce  of  the  Amazon  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific.  The  railway  may  be  built  before  the 
Canal  is  completed. 

Paita  is  the  petroleum  port.  The  oil  fields  lie  be- 
tween it  and  Tumbez  at  Talara.  The  Pennsylvania 
oil-drillers  whom  I met  on  two  visits  were  graphically 
frank.  They  thought  the  petroleum  possibilities  were 
great,  but  they  had  a poor  opinion  of  the  English  and 
French  companies.  The  sulphur  beds  are  near  the 
Bay  of  Sechura,  and  are  connected  with  the  port  of 
Bayovar  by  a railway  thirty  miles  long. 


PERUVIAN  SHORE  TOWNS 


79 


A night  out  from  Paita  and  the  morning  discloses 
a sandy  shore  with  round  bluffs.  After  traversing 
what  seems  a causeway,  there  are  rocks  with  a salt 
crystalline  surface.  “ Guano,”  briefly  says  the  ex- 
perienced traveller,  “the  Lobos  Islands.”  “Butwhere 
is  the  port  of  Eten  ? ” “ Eten  is  over  there,”  point- 

ing to  a shell-like  side  of  the  hill.  A smashing  surf 
is  beating,  and  nothing  can  be  seen  but  the  outline 
of  a pier.  Finally  heavy  surf-boats  with  strong-armed 
crews  to  handle  the  long  oars  make  their  appearance. 
The  passengers  are  disembarked  by  means  of  crane 
and  basket  and  are  hauled  up  to  the  pier  by  the  same 
agency.  Eten  is  the  outlet  for  the  sugar  and  rice  of 
the  Lambayeque  region,  and  a railroad  spur  runs  a 
few  miles  back  in  the  interior  to  Ferrenafe.  Its 
yearly  commerce  is  ^1,300,000.  The  Yuncas  Indian 
dialect  is  spoken  in  this  region.  It  antedates  the 
Quichua,  which  was  the  language  of  the  Inca  tribes. 

From  Eten  to  Pacasmayo  there  is  a low  beach  or 
no  beach  at  all,  with  the  mountains  humped  up  at  the 
foot  of  conical  jagged  peaks,  beyond  which  are  more 
peaks  in  regular  order,  the  Coast  Range  of  the  Andes. 
Pacasmayo  bathed  in  the  sunlight  and  lying  at  the 
foot  of  a high  mountain,  presents  a very  pretty  pic- 
ture. The  surf  is  heavy,  but  the  caballitos,  or  grass 
canoes,  of  the  natives,  are  at  home  in  the  tumbling 
waves,  and  the  going  ashore  is  not  an  unpleasant  ex- 
perience barring  the  ever  present  possibility  of  an  upset. 
The  jetty  which  aids  commerce  was  built  by  an  Ameri- 
can company.  Pacasmayo  ships  large  quantities  of 
sugar  from  the  valleys  beyond  and  also  some  rice  and 
fruits.  Its  oranges  are  famous.  I never  saw  so  many 
sea-birds  as  are  in  this  vicinity.  The  pelicans  hang 


80 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


like  clouds,  and  often  they  dash  for  the  water  like  an 
inverted  whirling  pyramid.  Porpoises  are  numerous, 
while  some  seals  and  whales  are  found  in  these 
waters. 

Pacasmayo  was  the  seaport  for  the  transcontinental 
trail  or  route  to  the  Amazon  which  was  followed  both 
by  the  natives  and  the  early  Spaniards.  The  road  led 
over  the  Cordilleras  to  Yurimaguas  on  the  Huallaga 
River.  Various  projects  have  been  attempted  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  through  steam  and  river  naviga- 
tion. An  American  company  has  received  liberal 
land  grants  and  other  concessions  from  the  Peruvian 
government.  The  traffic  is  large  enough  to  justify 
building  a railway  line  from  Cajamarca  to  connect 
with  one  of  the  existing  coast  spurs. 

Cajamarca  lies  across  the  Continental  Divide  in  the 
valley  of  the  Maranon  River.  It  is  a town  of  ia,ooo 
or  15,000  inhabitants,  and  is  the  centre  of  a large 
commerce.  Freight  rates  by  burros  to  the  coast,  the 
only  present  means  of  transportation,  amount  to  $j 
per  ton.  Historically  Cajamarca  has  an  attractiveness 
all  its  own.  It  was  here  that  the  usurping  Inca 
emperor  Atahualpa,  who  seized  his  brother  Huascar’s 
birthright,  hospitably  received  Pizarro,  and,  simple 
savage  that  he  was,  propounded  the  question  which 
puzzled  other  untutored  minds  in  other  parts  of  the 
world  during  that  epoch  of  discovery  and  conquest : 
By  what  right  could  the  great  man  called  the  Pope 
give  to  the  other  great  man  called  the  King  of  Spain 
power  and  jurisdiction  over  land  where  he  himself 
held  no  control  ? 

Beyond  Pacasmayo  is  the  little  sugar-loading  port 
of  Huanchaco.  When  the  vessel  puts  in  there,  it  is 


PERUVIAN  SHORE  TOWNS 


81 


worth  while  going  ashore  and  taking  the  diligencia 
(stage)  or  a horse  across  to  Trujillo,  for  the  road  leads 
through  a huaca,  or  ancient  burial  and  treasure  ground 
of  the  Incas.  There  is  not  much  to  see  except  the 
mud  walls,  but  the  short  journey  is  a good  introduc- 
tion to  the  old  civilization.  Trujillo  is  a very  pretty 
and  active  little  place  on  a small  river.  The  railroad 
runs  down  to  Salaverry  on  the  jutting  slope  of  the 
mountain,  the  summit  of  which  is  marked  by  a cross. 
It  is  the  fourth  port  of  Peru  in  point  of  trade,  the 
commerce  being  about  $2,500,000  each  twelvemonth. 
There  is  a cemetery  which  tourists  seek  in  order  to 
read  the  inscription,  “ Se  prohibe  pasar  la  muralla  los 
botes  — boats  are  forbidden  to  pass  over  the  wall.” 
From  this  it  may  be  understood  that  this  graveyard 
sometimes  is  under  water.  From  the  sea  Salaverry 
is  an  open  roadstead  nestling  by  a little  cub  of  a 
mountain  which  crouches  at  the  feet  of  a big  mother 
mountain.  All  the  time  the  towering  peaks  of  the 
Andes  are  growing  in  grandeur. 

Chimbote,  the  next  port,  as  yet  has  little  com- 
mercial importance,  because  the  coal  and  other  mineral 
wealth  of  the  country  back  of  it  have  not  been  devel- 
,oped.  It  has  great  prospects  in  the  future,  possibly 
as  an  American  naval  station,  for  the  Peruvian  govern- 
ment, it  is  understood,  is  anxious  to  grant  the  United 
States  certain  privileges  there.  It  lies  nearly  midway 
between  Panama  and  Valparaiso.  The  Bay  of  Ferrol, 
of  which  Chimbote  is  the  port,  is  protected  by  a large 
number  of  islets.  Its  waters  are  always  tranquil  and 
seem  more  those  of  a lake  in  the  interior  than  of  the 
sea.  The  bay  measures  seven  miles  by  five,  and  at  all 
points  offers  anchorage  of  the  first  order.  It  is  deep 

6 


82 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


and  a very  large  number  of  vessels  of  the  heaviest  ton- 
nage could  at  all  times  find  a shelter.  Quays  and 
wharves  could  easily  be  erected.  The  railway  extends 
to  Suchiman,  a distance  of  thirty-two  miles.  It  is  to 
be  prolonged  to  Recuay,  and  some  day  may  form  an 
important  link  in  transcontinental  communication  to 
the  affluents  of  the  Amazon.  The  ruins  of  the  Inca 
aqueduct  at  Chimbote  possess  an  interest  alike  for 
tourists  and  for  engineers. 

Farther  down  the  coast  is  the  landing-place  of  Supe. 
I know  Supe  well.  Five  days  were  passed  there  once, 
not,  the  officials  said,  in  quarantine,  but  simply  under 
observation  for  the  bubonic  plague.  The  hamlet  has 
artesian  wells  and  a lighthouse,  due  to  the  public  spirit 
of  the  planters.  It  ships  cotton,  sugar,  cane  rum,  and 
rice.  It  also  has  a huaca.  Several  of  my  fellow- 
voyagers  went  ashore  and  dug  in  the  graveyard. 
They  came  back  with  their  finds, — pottery  vessels 
looking  suspiciously  new  and  some  of  which,  as  they 
afterwards  admitted,  they  bought  from  the  natives. 
The  visitor  is  allowed  to  dig  up  the  pottery  himself 
The  villagers  are  hospitable.  They  made  no  objec- 
tion when  the  ship’s  doctor  unearthed  a skeleton  and 
left  them  a gratification,  or  hush  money,  for  the  privi- 
lege of  carrying  it  off.  His  bribery  was  fruitless,  for 
the  captain  of  the  Tucapel,  complaining  already  of 
ill-luck  and  sailors’  superstitions,  gave  him  the  choice 
of  dropping  the  skeleton  overboard  or  of  being  dropped 
overboard  himself. 

Ancon  is  one  of  the  minor  ports  sometimes  utilized 
for  commerce  when  Callao  is  under  quarantine.  When 
the  fog  rises,  a perspective  is  disclosed  of  sandy  moun- 
tains and  of  palm  trees  along  the  shore.  The  bay  is 


PERUVIAN  SHORE  TOWNS 


83 


a fine  one.  Seals  and  whales  frequent  it  without 
disturbing  the  bathers,  for  Ancon  is  a resort  to  which 
all  Lima  comes  by  taking  the  railroad  for  thirty  miles 
through  the  winding  paths  that  penetrate  and  sur- 
mount the  overlapping  white  sand-hills.  Ancon  is 
famous  historically  as  the  place  in  which  the  treaty 
of  peace  with  Chile  was  signed  when  that  victorious 
nation  was  exacting  terms,  and  it  is  the  Treaty  of 
Ancon  to  which  reference  is  so  often  made  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  still  unsettled  Tacna-Arica  question. 

To  enter  the  port  of  Callao,  the  vessels  follow  a 
semicircular  course  around  the  rocks  to  get  within  the 
shelter  of  the  island  of  San  Lorenzo  and  the  long  sandy 
tongue  of  land.  It  is  sometimes  stated  that  the  island 
of  San  Lorenzo  was  split  off  from  the  mainland  by 
an  earthquake,  but  geology  gives  no  support  to  this 
assumption.  Of  recent  years  the  government  has 
initiated  many  improvements  in  the  bay.  One  of  the 
best  is  a fine  new  navy  mole,  and  as  the  warships  of  all 
nations  make  Callao  their  frequent  station,  this  im- 
provement is  appreciated.  There  are  also  the  darsena, 
or  system  of  wharves  and  piers,  controlled  by  the 
government,  and  the  floating  iron  dock  which  was  con- 
structed by  a French  company.  This  dock  has  a 
capacity  of  5,000  tons.  A new  contract  between  the 
government  and  the  company  in  1905  relieved  com- 
merce of  many  burdens.  Callao  is  a fine  port.  The 
plaza  in  the  centre,  with  its  blending  of  tropical  trees 
and  statuary,  forms  a refreshing  picture.  The  custom 
house  is  the  most  pretentious  building,  but  there  are 
other  tasteful  structures.  The  population  of  Callao 
is  30,000,  but  in  the  daytime  it  seems  to  be  larger,  as 
many  of  the  people  doing  business  at  the  port  live  at 


84 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


Lima,  which  is  only  nine  miles  inland  and  is  connected 
by  an  electric  trolley  and  two  steam  railways.  The 
foreign  commercial  colony  is  a large  one.  Much  of 
its  social  life  centres  in  the  English  Club. 

All  the  commerce  of  central  Peru  passes  through 
Callao.  The  shipping  is  extensive.  Enterprising 
Chinese  merchants  have  established  a direct  line  to 
Hongkong  via  Panama,  but  the  ships  flying  the 
English  flag  exceed  all  the  other  nations.  Callao  is 
visited  annually  by  more  than  i,ooo  coasting-vessels, 
steamers,  and  sailing-ships,  with  a cargo  tonnage  of 
175,000  to  200,000  for  discharge.  England  is  first 
in  the  shipping,  Chile  next,  and  Germany  third.  The 
maritime  movement  is  more  active  than  at  any  port 
south  of  Panama  except  Valparaiso.  With  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Canal  its  commercial  importance  will  be 
prodigiously  enhanced.  At  present  nearly  half  the 
trade  of  Peru  pays  tribute  to  its  shipping,  and  the  bulk 
of  the  revenues  of  the  country  are  collected  in  its  cus- 
tom house.  For  the  last- year  for  which  statistics  are 
given,  its  foreign  commerce  amounted  to  ^16,908,000 
out  of  a total  for  the  whole  Republic  of  $37,058,000. 
The  imports  were  about  $13,000,000  and  the  exports 
$4,350,000.  The  coastwise  traffic,  in  which  foreign 
vessels  are  permitted  to  engage,  centres  in  this  port. 

From  Callao  south  are  a large  number  of  open 
roadsteads  which  hardly  deserve  to  be  called  vessel 
landings,  for  they  are  entirely  without  harbor  facilities. 
By  means  of  lighters  and  small  craft,  freight  and 
passengers  are  loaded  and  unloaded  through  the  surf. 
Cerro  de  Azul  means  “ blue  hills,”  but  the  place  is  not 
very  blue  except  for  ship-captains.  It  is  a shipping- 
port  for  sugar  and  cattle  which  are  driven  in  from  the 


PERUVIAN  SHORE  TOWNS 


85 


interior.  Lomas  is  another  wretched  little  place. 
Chala  is  an  attractive  coast  village,  chiefly  a cattle- 
loading port.  The  region  is  noted  for  the  production 
of  the  granadilla  fruit.  The  granadilla  is  similar  to 
the  mandrake,  or  May  apple. 

Pisco  is  a thriving  port,  with  an  open  bay  sheltered 
by  rocky  islets.  Among  these  are  the  Chinchas,  or 
guano  islands,  which  are  yet  capable  of  exploitation. 
The  beach,  with  smooth  rounded  hills  in  the  back- 
ground, bends  like  a scythe.  There  is  green  vegeta- 
tion, which  is  always  grateful,  and  palm,  olive,  pine, 
and  other  trees.  The  beach  is  possible  for  bathing, 
but  the  sharks  are  too  numerous  to  make  it  enjoyable. 

The  town  lies  about  a mile  back  from  the  port, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  a mule  tramway.  The 
commerce  exceeds  ^1,100,000  yearly.  A railroad  runs 
from  Pisco  to  Ica,  forty  miles.  It  follows  a rich  valley 
in  which  there  are  many  fine  haciendas,  or  plantations. 
The  products  are  both  tropical  and  temperate.  They 
include  cotton,  sugar-cane,  alfalfa,  and  corn.  A big 
cotton  field  on  the  edge  of  the  port  looks  like  a small 
section  of  North  Carolina.  Pisco  is  noted  especially 
for  the  vineyards,  which  extend  to  Ica  and  beyond. 
From  these  grapes  is  made  the  wine  called  Italia.  It 
is  enclosed  in  queer-looking  oval-shaped  earthen  jars, 
some  of  them  of  enormous  size.  The  best  brandy 
that  is  to  be  had  anywhere  in  South  America  takes  its 
name  from  Pisco.  It  is  a grape  brandy.  The  pure 
article  is  superior  to  French  cognac,  but,  alas  ! the  art 
of  adulteration  has  been  learned,  and  the  real  distilla- 
tion of  the  grape  juice  is  not  often  procured. 

The  district  around  Pisco  is  famous  for  its  variety 
of  tropical  fruits,  including  bananas  and  paltaSy  or 


86 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


alligator  pears.  The  Pisco  watermelons  also  are  noted. 
In  the  markets  of  Lima  they  are  what  the  Georgia 
watermelons  are  in  the  markets  of  New  York.  I 
never  tasted  finer  ones.  The  whole  of  the  surround- 
ing country,  when  it  can  be  watered,  is  of  enormous 
fertility.  A vast  irrigation  scheme  has  been  projected 
for  the  region  which  extends  south.  There  is  a high 
range  of  blue-veiled,  cloud-shrouded  mountains,  and 
then  the  plain  of  Noco,  which  spreads  down  to  the 
gentle  bluffs  that  overlap  the  sea.  This  plain  parallels 
the  coast  as  far  as  Tambo  de  Mora,  and  all  of  it  is 
capable  of  irrigation.  Tambo  de  Mora  has  some 
ancient  tombs  or  burial-grounds  and  high  mounds 
marked  with  crosses  right  on  the  edge  of  the  village. 
Its  shipments  are  cotton  in  bales,  and  liquors  in  casks 
and  barrels. 

Mollendo,  which  is  the  railway  outlet  of  southern 
Peru  and  of  northern  and  central  Bolivia,  is  one  of  the 
three  worst  ports  on  the  West  Coast.  Iquique  and 
Antofagasta  farther  down  dispute  the  claims,  but  it  is 
impossible  to  see  on  what  grounds.  They  are  positive 
and  comparative  while  Mollendo  is  simply  superlatively 
worst.  Seen  from  the  sea,  the  town  looks  well  enough, 
spreading  on  the  flat  slope  of  the  hill,  with  its  party- 
colored  houses  glistening  in  the  sunlight.  On  a feast 
day  or  national  holiday  the  many  foreign  flags  flying 
indicate  the  presence  of  numerous  consuls,  which  is  a 
sure  indication  of  commercial  importance.  It  is  the 
getting  into  the  port  through  the  open  roadstead  that 
is  terrifying.  There  is  a causeway,  and  in  order  to 
land  it  is  necessary  to  pass  through  this  rocky  opening. 
Sometimes  the  vessels  have  to  wait  several  days  before 
they  can  transfer  their  cargo  to  the  lighters. 


View  of  Mollendo  Harbor  and  Railway  Yards 


PERUVIAN  SHORE  TOWNS 


87 


For  voyagers  there  is  only  one  way,  and  that  is  to 
risk  life  and  the  hope  of  further  voyaging  to  the  care 
of  the  strong-armed  native  rowers.  Long  practice  has 
enabled  them  deftly  to  grab  the  passenger  from  the 
ship’s  ladder  and  stow  him  or  her  in  their  craft.  The 
manoeuvres  are  repeated  until  all  who  are  courageous 
enough  are  in  the  boat.  Then  it  is  a question  of 
breasting  the  breakers.  The  first  time  I went  ashore 
there  were  three  Peruvian  women  aboard.  One  was 
an  old  lady  who  made  the  trip  to  Lima  twice  a year; 
the  others  were  wives  of  local  merchants.  The  dame 
began  her  “ Ave  Marias.”  The  younger  women  were 
less  devout.  Every  moment  they  exclaimed,  “ Jesu 
Maria  ” and  “ Madre  de  Dios”  but  in  the  tone  of  a 
man  swearing.  A huge  breaker  swept  over  the  boat 
and  gave  us  all  a bath.  Then  the  craft  danced  on  the 
crest  of  the  next  one  like  a cork.  The  aged  lady 
became  more  calm,  though  she  continued  to  pray. 
Later,  when  we  were  safely  ashore,  she  confided  to  me 
that  she  always  was  terrified  till  the  first  ducking,  and 
after  that  she  felt  that  the  shore  would  be  reached. 

The  sea  is  not  always  quite  so  bad,  but  it  cannot  be 
counted  on  two  hours  in  succession  to  be  what  the 
natives  call  “ consolodora”  By  that  they  mean,  not 
tranquil  or  consoling,  but  comparatively  calm.  “ Com- 
paratively ” is  the  difference  between  a raging  sea  and 
a roaring  surf. 

Around  the  point  from  Mollendo  is  the  Bay  of 
Islay,  calm,  sheltered,  and  deep.  It  was  once  a place 
of  importance.  Now  its  population  consists  of  a few 
fishermen.  Everyone  inquires  why  it  was  not  made 
the  port,  to  which  one  answer  is  that  when  the  railroad 
was  built  the  landowners  became  exorbitant  in  their 


88 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


demands,  and  there  was  no  way  for  the  line  to  secure 
terminal  facilities  except  by  paying  more  than  the 
road  was  worth.  Another  explanation  is  that  the 
property-owners  of  Mollendo,  by  liberal  subsidies  and 
other  inducements,  persuaded  the  railway  to  stop  at 
the  causeway.  Whatever  the  reason,  Mollendo  now 
has  vested  rights  as  a port,  and  the  change  could  not 
be  made  to  Islay  without  encountering  the  most 
strenuous  opposition.  Consequently  it  will  not  be 
made.  Recognizing  this,  the  government  in  1905 
undertook  harbor  improvements  for  Mollendo  at  an 
initial  expense  of  ^500,000. 

Mollendo  has  a kind  of  double-jointed  custom 
house,  the  first  for  imports  into  Peru,  and  the 
second  for  imports  which  are  to  be  carried  through 
Peruvian  territory  up  to  Bolivia.  The  exports  which 
come  from  the  interior  are  chiefly  alpaca  and  other 
wool.  The  last  year  for  which  figures  are  given,  these 
amounted  to  71,000  Spanish  quintals,  or  approxi- 
mately 7,200,000  pounds.  A considerable  quantity 
of  borax  and  minerals  are  exported  and  a small 
amount  of  coffee.  The  shipments  of  crude  rubber 
amount  to  500,000  pounds.  Mollendo  is  second  only 
to  Callao  in  its  exports  and  imports,  the  total  com- 
merce averaging  ^5,000,000  annually  according  to  the 
figures  of  the  Peruvian  officials.  When  the  Panama 
Canal  is  opened,  the  major  portion  of  the  shipments 
from  this  district,  which  are  light  freight,  will  have 
the  benefit  of  competitive  ocean  rates  through  the 
waterway  with  the  tolls  added,  or  around  Cape  Horn 
without  tolls  but  with  heavier  coal  bills  and  longer  time 
in  transport.  The  traffic  will  tend  toward  Panama. 


CHAPTER  VI 


LIMA  AND  THE  CORDILLERAS 

Pleasing  Historic  Memories  — Moorish  Churches  and  Andalusian 
Art  — Pissarro's  Remains  in  the  Cathedral  ~ Transmitted 
Incidents  of  the  Earthquake  — The  Palace^  or  Government 
Building  — General  Castilla's  Humor  — Decay  of  the  Bull- 
Fight  — Cultured  Society  of  the  Capital  — Foreign  Element  — 
San  Francisco  Mo7tastery  — Municipal  Progress  — Chamber 
of  Commerce  — A Trip  up  the  Famous  Oroya  Railway  — 
Masterwork  of  Henry  Meiggs  — Heights  and  Distances  — 
Little  Hell  — The  Great  Galera  Tunnel  — Around  Oroya 
— Railroad  to  Cerro  de  Pasco  Mines  — American  Enterprise 
in  the  Heart  of  the  Andes. 

PLEASANT  Lima  ! Fairest  of  transplanted  capi- 
tals ! The  Moorish  memories  of  Andalusia  lin- 
ger over  the  City  of  the  Kings  which  Pizarro  founded. 
The  stern  monuments  of  the  Inquisition  are  yet  with 
her.  Seek  them  in  the  Senate  Chamber,  where  the  in- 
quisitors sat  in  judgment ; search  for  them  just  over 
the  bridge,  where  the  doomed  victims  after  condemna- 
tion awaited  their  fate ; or  in  the  Plaza  Mayor,  where 
the  autos  de  fe  were  celebrated  and  the  condemned 
were  burned  or  hanged.  Reflect,  the  last  victim  of 
the  stake  was  a woman,  Madame  Castro.  She  was 
burned,  in  1736,  “for  being  a Jewess.”  She  would 
talk  heterodoxy  ! 

Historic  Lima!  Seat  of  the  viceroyalty;  throbbing 
heart  and  scourging  soul  of  the  Spanish  colonial 


90 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


empire ; home  of  the  Royal  Audiencia,  centre  of  law- 
giving  and  delegated  authority,  whence  the  Ordenazas 
— the  minute  code  of  government  and  administration 
alike  for  subjugated  savage  and  freebooting  colonist  — 
were  promulgated  for  all  the  vast  territory  from 
Panama  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan  and  from  the 
Pacific  far  beyond  the  Andes  to  the  Amazon  and 
La  Plata ! 

But  the  glory  of  rulers  perishes.  Few  can  name 
their  quota  of  those  forty-four  viceroys  of  Spain  who 
held  the  sceptre  on  the  Pacific  coast.  After  Pizarro, 
the  Conquistador,  of  the  iron  fist  and  will  of  steel, 
and  as  his  superior,  came  — who?  Blasco  Nunez 
Vela  was  the  first  of  the  viceroys,  — a harsh,  haughty, 
obstinate  servant  of  the  Crown,  whose  blundering 
nearly  overwhelmed  Spain  with  the  sunset  of  the 
splendid  colonial  empire  at  its  very  dawn.  Who 
came  between  and  who  was  the  last? 

The  sentimental  antiquarian  grieves  over  the  de- 
struction of  the  viceregal  residence  of  this  last  delegated 
ruler.  It  lay  In  a grove  of  palms  and  orange  trees 
under  the  shadow  of  Mt.  San  Cristobal,  with  the  ancient 
garden  of  the  Descalzos,  or  Barefoot  Friars,  neighbor- 
ing it.  The  mansion  was  mediaeval  and  tropical.  But 
the  big  brewery  encroached  on  It.  The  horses  and 
mules  of  the  big  brewery  had  to  be  stabled  ; the  beer 
wagons  had  to  have  room.  Mr.  Champion  Jones,  the 
English  manager  of  the  industry,  gave  a breakfast  to 
foreign  and  resident  society  one  Sunday  morning.  We 
revived  the  memories  of  the  viceroys  over  an  exquisite 
French  menu,  and  some  of  us  carried  away  a few 
mementos.  The  next  day  the  vandal  destroyer  pulled 
down  the  walls.  The  mules  are  stabled  there  now. 


LIMA  AND  THE  CORDILLERAS  91 


Yet  there  is  cheer  for  the  sentimentalist  who  mourns 
over  departed  glories.  The  mansion  never  really  was 
the  residence  of  the  viceroy.  It  was  only  the  bower  of 
his  favorite  mistress,  who  dispensed  hospitality  and 
received  the  recognition  that  the  stern  society  of  the 
times  gave  to  power  and  place  without  questioning  the 
private  morals  of  the  high  and  mighty.  Besides,  it  was 
long  after  the  Inquisition,  for  the  viceroyalty  lasted  till 
the  young  years  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

But  the  fourscore  churches,  with  their  minarets  and 
towers,  their  tessellated  mosaics  and  blending  of  bright 
colors,  — they  are  Andalusian  adaptations  of  Moorish 
art.  Very  shabby  are  most  of  them  and  not  kept 
in  good  repair.  There  are  too  many  mosque-like 
worship-places,  and  too  few  devout  and  open-pursed 
worshippers.  From  the  roof  of  the  American  Legation 
I counted  thirty  of  these  churches.  The  artist  might 
preserve  all  the  charm  of  antiquity  and  yet  satisfy  the 
craving  for  the  picturesque  if  the  means  were  provided 
and  the  disposition  to  do  it  existed.  These  edifices  are 
of  Spain  in  the  colonial  epoch,  and  Spain  never  repaired 
church  or  castle  or  dwelling.  Let  them  rust  and  fall 
apart,  for  have  not  crumbling  stone  and  fading  colors  a 
graphicness  of  their  own  ? Yet  with  these  decaying 
and  neglected  Moorish  churches  in  Lima  the  ruin  dis- 
closes too  much  that  is  tawdry,  too  much  veneer. 

The  Cathedral  is  modern,  not  moth-eaten  or 
weather-rusted  within  or  without.  It  took  the  place  of 
the  old  structure,  which  was  destroyed  by  earthquake. 
The  interior  is  tile-paved  and  clean  ; there  are  an- 
tique mural  paintings,  fine  examples  of  wood-carving 
in  the  pulpit,  solid  silver  altar  fixings,  the  money  value 
of  which  the  guide  recites  with  swelling  pride ; and. 


92  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 

greatest  of  all  memorials,  the  bones  of  Francisco 
Plzarro. 

On  my  first  visit  to  Lima,  In  the  hurry  of  business 
matters  and  social  engagements,  I Indulged  In  no 
sightseeing.  The  hotel  runner  who  was  piloting  me 
about  was  puzzled.  The  Cathedral  was  only  a block 
distant.  “Won’t  you  go  to  the  Cathedral,”  he  said, 
“ and  see  the  bones  of  Mister  Plzarro  ? ” The  lin- 
gering and  respectful  emphasis  on  the  “ Mister  ” was 
almost  too  much  for  my  gravity.  The  Plzarros,  as 
my  recollection  runs,  were  swineherds,  and  the  ap- 
pellation Don  never  was  theirs.  But  If  respect  were 
lacking  for  their  family  tree  In  their  lifetime,  no  de- 
scendant could  complain  of  Irreverence  or  want  of 
courtesy  In  this  volunteer  guide  who  sorrowed  be- 
cause of  my  apparent  Indifference  regarding  the  late 
Mr.  Plzarro. 

On  a subsequent  visit  I went  to  view  the  remains. 
The  caretaker  Irreverently  draws  the  curtains  from  the 
niche  In  the  little  chapel  of  the  Virgin.  I am  sure  the 
hotel  runner  would  not  do  so.  But  habit  In  satisfying 
tourist  curiosity  has  made  the  Cathedral  guide  a show- 
man. The  remains  are  in  a marble  casket.  The 
skeleton  is  well  preserved.  The  frame  is  that  of  a 
big  man ; the  brains  are  kept  apart  in  a jar.  Rolled 
in  a metal  case  is  the  parchment  certificate  of  authen- 
ticity. This  is  what  was  the  mighty  conqueror,  the 
most  heroic  of  the  Conquistadores,  the  peer  of  the 
indomitable  Cortez.  Shall  we  muse  curiously,  or 
shall  we  give  way  to  the  physical  sensation  of  being 
In  the  anatomical  museum  of  a medical  school  ? It 
depends  on  the  temperament. 

The  Cathedral  has  more  than  Pizarro’s  remains.  It 


Interior  of  Cathedral,  Lima 


LIMA  AND  THE  CORDILLERAS  93 


possesses  the  manuscript  records  of  the  Municipality 
of  Lima.  They  are  bound  in  modern  calf,  though 
the  original  parchments  are  sear  and  rusty  and  yellow. 
There  is  also  a modern  library  which  is  open  to  the 
public.  I found  among  its  attractions,  in  one  of  the 
stairway  vestibules,  a unique  painting  on  the  wall 
typifying  life  in  Lima  in  the  sixteenth  century.  It 
represents  a scene  in  the  plaza.  It  pictures  the  gay 
cavalier  of  Spain  in  his  fancy  habiliments ; the  sedate 
matron  demurely  wearing  the  historic  mantilla ; the 
maid  in  the  same  headdress,  but  coquettish  and  an- 
swering the  sly  glances  of  the  cavalier  ; the  native 
Indian  race  in  groups  of  individuals;  women  market- 
venders;  the  Indians  from  the  country  with  the  llamas 
and  burros,  — all  as  we  may  guess  it  was  in  the  six- 
teenth century  and  much  of  it  as  it  is  to-day  with  the 
native  race. 

Lima’s  earthquake  record  is  a continuous  one  from 
1683,  when  the  great  trembling  was  experienced,  until 
the  present  day.  One  of  the  most  memorable  of 
these  seismic  disturbances  was  that  of  October,  1746. 
The  memoirs  of  the  viceroy.  Count  Superunda,  tell  a 
curious  story  of  those  days  of  wonder  and  terror  and 
the  scenes  enacted,  — how  debtors  sought  for  their 
creditors  in  order  to  pay  them  ; how  enemies  became 
reconciled  and  embraced  one  another  in  fraternal  for- 
giveness ; how  slanderers  on  their  knees  besought  the 
pardon  of  those  whom  they  had  slandered ; and  how 
courteous  cavaliers,  seeking  injured  husbands  who 
until  then  had  been  ignorant  of  their  wives’  transgres- 
sions, asked  forgiveness,  which  the  injured  husband, 
in  spite  of  his  surprise,  would  grant  with  an  effusive 
embrace.  A strange  picture  of  morals  — ten  years 


94 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


after  the  Inquisition  had  burned  Madame  Castro  for 
being  a Jewess! 

The  balconies  and  arcades  of  Lima,  the  f^ades  and 
graceful  arches,  are  Andalusian,  yet  there  is  a trace  of 
Greece  in  the  adaptations  of  Doric  and  Ionic  columns. 
The  paseos,  or  walks  and  drives,  the  parks  and 
gardens,  in  their  grace  and  symmetry  are  Moorish 
again ; so  are  the  kiosks. 

The  Palace,  or  Government  Building,  which  is  to  be 
supplemented  by  a new  structure,  is  neither  archaic  nor 
modern.  It  is  somewhere  midway  between  two  epochs. 
The  tree  which  Pizarro  planted,  a fig,  is  in  one  of  the 
inner  courts.  I saw  the  tree,  but  was  more  interested 
in  the  pictures  in  the  anteroom  of  the  Foreign  Office, 
— old  prints  of  American  subjects.  One  of  them  was 
of  Washington  crossing  the  Delaware. 

In  the  Palace  is  a portrait  of  Joaquin  Castilla,  one 
of  the  sturdy  characters  in  Peruvian  history.  He 
was  a Spanish  soldier  without  education  but  of  great 
natural  ability  who  joined  the  patriots  in  the  struggle 
for  independence  and  afterwards  became  President. 
He  had  the  humor  of  Sancho  Panza.  Once  a dele- 
gation of  women  waited  on  him.  The  request  they 
had  to  make  related  to  some  matter  of  administration 
to  which  an  answer  would  be  embarrassing.  The 
old  warrior,  though  he  was  of  low  birth,  had  all  the 
courtesy  of  a Castilian  hidalgo.  “ Why,  ladies,”  he 
said,  “ you  chatter  like  birds,  all  trying  to  talk  at 
once.  Now  let ’s  have  silence  and  let  one  of  you 
speak  for  all.”  A pause.  “ Let  the  oldest  lady 
speak.”  The  tradition  is  that  the  delegation  at  once 
filed  out  and  bothered  the  grim  soldier  no  more. 

I have  encountered  many  evidences  of  poverty  in 


Church  of  San  Francisco,  Lima 


Church  of  San  Augustin,  Lima 


LIMA  AND  THE  CORDILLERAS  95 


Lima,  but  the  poorer  classes  seem  to  be  contented. 
When  the  nights  are  chilly,  they  gather  their  blankets 
or  shawls  around  them,  according  to  the  sex,  and 
huddle  in  the  Plaza.  When  the  day  is  bright,  they 
bask  in  the  sunshine.  The  beggars  are  a nuisance  in 
their  obtrusiveness,  but  they  are  tolerated. 

On  a down  voyage  a party  of  young  foreigners 
persuaded  the  captain  to  hurry  the  ship  into  Callao 
Saturday  night,  so  that  they  could  get  ashore  and  go 
over  to  Lima  to  attend  the  Sunday  bull-fight.  The 
spectacle  did  not  meet  their  expectations,  which  had 
been  whetted  by  what  they  had  seen  in  Spain.  Once 
the  bull-fight  in  Lima  was  a recognized  social  institu- 
tion and  was  very  brilliant,  but  its  glory  has  faded. 
Humane  impulses  have  found  place  in  the  municipal 
regulations,  and  the  horrible  spectacle  of  the  bull  gor- 
ing a few  poor  old  horses  is  not  permitted.  This  takes 
away  much  of  the  excitement.  The  bull-fight  has  to 
be  tolerated,  and  the  President  of  the  Republic  attends 
the  function  given  in  his  honor,  but  I noticed  in  the 
newspaper  accounts  that  it  was  an  indifferent  affair. 
In  time  the  bull-fight  will  entirely  disappear.  The 
races,  which  are  popular,  will  take  its  place. 

The  lottery  will  stay  longer.  The  drawings  are 
held  on  the  public  square  every  week.  The  lottery 
is  legalized,  and  a portion  of  the  proceeds  goes  to  the 
charitable  institutions.  That  is  why  it  is  so  difficult  to 
grapple  with  this  evil  which  demoralizes  all  classes. 

Lima  always  has  been  noted  for  its  cultured  society. 
The  Spanish  spoken  is  the  purest  heard  in  South 
America.  It  is  as  pure  as  that  of  Andalusia  or 
Madrid.  Music,  art,  and  literature,  — these  always 
have  had  their  place.  At  the  hospitable  board  of  Dr. 


96 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


Isaac  Alzamora,  the  former  Vice-President,  the  wittiest 
host  in  Peru,  I met  many  persons  whose  talents  and 
accomplishments  hardly  could  be  equalled.  The  life 
of  the  rich  families  is  refined,  and  notwithstanding  its 
seclusion  comes  nearer  to  the  American  ideal  of  home 
than  anywhere  else  in  Spanish  America. 

Lima  has  two  leading  clubs.  The  National  is  the 
more  conservative,  and  is  where  all  that  is  solid  in 
business,  politics,  and  professional  life  is  met.  The 
Union  Club  is  composed  of  the  younger  element,  and 
one  of  its  attractions  is  that  more  liberty  is  permitted 
in  gambling. 

The  foreign  society  of  Lima  I found  to  be  more 
in  sympathy  with  the  native  society  than  almost  any 
other  place.  Its  dean,  and  the  most  popular  foreigner, 
is  Mr.  Richard  Neill,  for  twenty  years  the  Secretary 
of  the  American  Legation,  affectionately  called  Don 
Ricardo  by  his  Peruvian  friends.  French,  Germans, 
Italians,  even  the  English,  find  something  in  common 
with  the  Peruvians.  The  British  colony  is  numerous 
enough  to  be  split  into  factions.  The  Scotch  element, 
very  masterful  in  business,  predominates. 

Among  the  Europeans  the  Italians  are  by  far  the 
most  numerous.  They  have  very  largely  the  retail 
trade  and  they  are  property-holders  in  an  unusual  de- 
gree. A Little  Italy  lies  across  the  Rimac  River. 

A very  large  Chinese  population  exists  in  Lima. 
Much  of  it  is  the  second  and  third  generation.  Origi- 
nally the  Chinese  were  brought  to  Peru  as  contract 
coolie  laborers,  but  of  late  years  the  immigration  has 
been  of  a normal  kind.  The  Chinese  of  this  period 
have  discarded  the  queue  and  have  adopted  the  con- 
ventional dress.  Some  wealthy  Chinese  merchants  have 


LIMA  AND  THE  CORDILLERAS  97 


an  appreciable  influence  in  the  commerce  of  the  coun- 
try. These  rich  merchants  are  antagonized  by  another 
faction  which  objects  to  their  assumptions  of  superior- 
ity. This  element  also  is  getting  rich.  China  keeps 
a Consul-General  in  Peru  with  semi-diplomatic  func- 
tions, and  usually  he  has  enough  to  do. 

I went  one  day  in  company  with  Minister  Dudley 
to  call  on  one  of  the  notable  figures  in  the  cultured 
life  of  Lima.  This  was  Dr.  Ricardo  Palma,  Director 
of  the  National  Library,  the  learned  author  of  an  in- 
structive History  of  the  Inquisition  and  of  many  other 
books,  both  historical  and  literary.  Dr.  Palma,  during 
the  war  with  Chile,  lost  his  own  library  and  had  the 
anguish  of  seeing  the  accumulated  historic  treasures 
of  the  National  Library  sacked  by  the  victorious  in- 
vaders, but  he  set  to  work  at  once  to  form  a new  col- 
lection. He  has  gathered  together  400  manuscripts, 
and  the  Library  itself  is  the  best  arranged  and  most 
easily  accessible  that  can  be  consulted  on  the  West 
Coast. 

The  University  of  San  Marcos  also  has  played  a 
notable  part  in  the  intellectual  life  of  Peru. 

Of  the  many  churches,  convents,  and  monasteries, 
the  most  interesting  is  that  of  San  Francisco.  I went 
there  one  afternoon  with  Mr.  Alejandro  Garland,  the 
best-informed  man  in  Peru,  to  learn  in  a scant  half- 
day something  of  the  ancient  institution,  though  a 
week  would  not  have  been  long  enough  to  wander 
through  the  cloisters. 

The  monastery  covers  several  squares.  The  con- 
templative, meditative  life  of  the  Middle  Ages  no 
longer  exists.  The  friars  are  engaged  chiefly  in  char- 
itable work.  The  jovial  priest  who  was  assigned  to 

7 


98 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


be  our  guide  enjoyed  having  visitors.  He  explained 
that  the  incandescent  electric  lights  had  been  adopted 
because  they  were  cheaper  than  candles,  and  the  Order, 
being  poor,  had  to  economize.  But  the  monks  in 
their  cells  are  still  restricted  to  the  tallow  dips.  He 
courteously  asked  us  to  take  afternoon  tea  with  him. 
Here  certainly  was  an  innovation.  We  hesitated,  but 
he  pressed  us  so  heartily  that  there  was  no  escape. 
When  the  bell  sounded,  we  passed  into  the  refectory, 
were  seated  on  a wooden  bench  alongside  the  board 
table,  and  were  served  with  coffee  and  a slice  of  bread. 
The  friars  filed  in,  bowed  politely,  and  took  their 
places.  Some  of  them  looked  with  evident  surprise 
at  our  host  and  his  guests,  but  none  with  reproof. 
To  ourselves  our  presence  seemed  incongruous,  yet 
as  a variation  of  the  monotonous  routine  of  their  daily 
life  it  did  not  appear  unwelcome  to  the  Franciscans. 
We  chatted  in  an  undertone  for  a while,  and  on  our 
departing  the  monks  all  rose  and  bowed.  My  com- 
panion, though  a persona  grata  to  the  monastery  and 
well  acquainted  with  the  priests,  was  as  much  surprised 
at  our  novel  experience  as  myself.  He  never  had 
heard  of  a layman  or  a visitor  taking  afternoon  tea  or 
coffee  with  the  friars. 

The  patron  saint  of  Lima  was  Father  Francis  So- 
lano, the  founder  of  the  Franciscan  Order  in  Peru, 
and  the  missionary  who  went  through  toils  unutterable 
in  seeking  to  Christianize  the  Indians.  I was  shown 
the  cell  in  which  he  died,  and  then  (a  somewhat 
rare  privilege)  was  permitted  to  see  his  skull.  News- 
papers are  received  within  the  walls  of  the  monastery, 
because,  as  the  good  father  explained  to  me,  in  these 
stirring  days  it  is  necessary  to  be  en  rapport  with  what 


Scene  on  the  Oroya  Railway,  Chicla  Station 


LIMA  AND  THE  CORDILLERAS  99 


is  going  on  in  the  outside  world  in  order  to  do  good 
works.  Some  of  the  friars  read  English. 

Until  recently  Lima  was  not  a progressive  munici- 
pality. It  preserved  the  old  Spanish  traditions  of 
dirt  and  indifference.  But  it  had  an  awakening. 
Public  works,  such  as  befit  a city  of  its  political  and 
commercial  importance,  were  initiated.  A loan  for 
municipal  improvements  was  taken  by  the  local  banks. 
This  was  gratifying,  but  the  improvements  themselves 
were  more  gratifying.  The  town  is  becoming  an  in- 
dustrial centre,  with  many  small  factories  as  the  basis. 

A very  important  factor  in  the  progress  is  the  Lima 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  whose  members  include  all 
the  leading  merchants,  both  native  and  foreign.  The 
Chamber  has  exercised  a marked  influence  on  the 
fiscal  policy  of  Peru,  and  the  Government  with  its 
cooperation  has  been  able  to  strengthen  the  credit 
of  the  country  abroad  and  to  carry  through  the 
measures  which  are  the  basis  of  the  commercial  and 
industrial  revival  that  has  been  enjoyed.  Without 
the  aggressive  support  of  this  body  the  establishment 
of  the  gold  standard  scarcely  would  have  been 
secured.  Its  advice  with  regard  to  the  negotiation 
of  commercial  treaties  to  which  Peru  aspires  is  valu- 
able, and  its  suggestions  concerning  administrative 
reforms  in  the  customs  usually  receive  respectful 
attention.  I do  not  know  any  nation  where  the 
business  man  in  public  affairs  — not  in  partisan 
politics  — fulfils  his  proper  functions  so  well  as  in 
Peru,  and  this  is  done  through  the  concentration  in 
the  Chamber  of  Commerce. 

In  the  public  works  municipal  sanitation  is  a leading 
feature.  That  is  good.  The  death  rate  of  Lima,  in 


100 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


spite  of  a healthful  climate,  is  disproportionately  high. 
The  returns  show  a birth  rate  of  28.37  compared 
with  a death  rate  of  37.43.  The  ignorance  of  the 
poorer  classes  of  the  proper  means  of  living  is  not 
the  only  cause  of  this  high  death  proportion,  but 
they  have  to  be  taught  hygiene,  and  the  municipality 
has  to  lead  the  way. 

The  climate  of  Lima  merits  the  praises  given  it, 
yet  the  Winter  season  from  June  to  September  is  raw 
and  disagreeable  and  especially  bad  for  rheumatism. 
Tuberculosis  claims  many  victims.  The  legend  is 
that  rain  never  falls,  that  the  dews  and  the  moisture 
from  the  clouds,  which  is  not  precipitated,  and  the 
fogs  on  the  coast,  take  the  place  of  rain.  This  is 
not  quite  true.  Sometimes  there  is  actual  rain  and 
sometimes  a drizzle.  Minister  Dudley  and  I had 
the  proof  two  successive  evenings,  when  we  were  out 
to  dinner  and  had  our  high  hats  spoiled  through 
our  failure  to  carry  umbrellas. 

Peru,  as  far  as  the  main  Cordillera  of  the  Andes, 
is  bisected  by  the  Central  Railway,  which  runs  from 
the  seaport  of  Callao  to  Oroya,  following  the  course 
of  the  Rimac  River.  The  distance  is  138  miles.  In 
these  later  days  of  mechanical  triumphs  it  is  still  pos- 
sible to  declare  that  this  railroad  is  the  engineering 
marvel  of  the  world.  It  is  an  often  told  story,  but 
one  that  bears  re-telling. 

The  name  of  Henry  Meiggs  in  the  Yankee  mind 
is  vaguely  identified  with  something  big  in  South 
America  and  with  something  wrong  in  the  United 
States.  Meiggs  was  a fugitive  financier  from  Cali- 
fornia. He  had  been  the  treasurer  of  San  Francisco 
County,  had  loaned  the  public  funds  to  his  friends. 


LIMA  AND  THE  CORDILLEKAS  101 


and  when  they  failed  to  pay  up  had  been  forced  to 
flee  as  a defaulter.  He  afterwards  made  good  the 
defalcation.  He  first  went  to  Chile,  but  in  a few 
years  settled  in  Peru.  He  built  the  Southern  Rail- 
way from  Mollendo  to  Lake  Titicaca,  which  is  itself 
a marvellous  work.  But  his  fame  as  a captain  of 
industry  and  his  reputation  as  a benefactor  to  Peru 
rest  on  the  Central  Railway.  Meiggs  was  not  an 
engineer.  He  was  a financial  genius  with  a bold 
imagination  and  daring  mind.  He  had  the  capacity 
to  get  other  men  of  genius,  among  them  the  Polish 
engineer  Malinowski,  to  carry  out  his  ideas  on  the 
side  of  construction.  He  could  win  the  confidence 
of  the  money-bags  of  London  and  float  South  Ameri- 
can bonds  at  good  prices,  when  the  countries  issuing 
those  bonds  could  not  give  them  away. 

In  1869  Henry  Meiggs  signed  the  contract  with 
the  Peruvian  government  to  build  the  Oroya  Railway 
for  ^29,000,000  in  bonds,  which  he  took  and  floated 
at  79,  thus  making  the  actual  price  $22,000,000.  He 
carried  the  railroad  construction  as  far  as  Chicla,  88 
miles,  and  built  the  great  Galera  tunnel  ready  for  the 
rails,  though  they  were  not  laid  through  it  till  years 
after  his  death,  when  the  extension  of  the  road  from 
Chicla  was  carried  to  the  terminus  at  Oroya  by  the 
Peruvian  Corporation.  The  road  climbs  to  its  great- 
est elevation  in  a distance  of  88  miles  without  a single 
down  grade.  The  ascent  is  from  the  tropical  ocean 
border  to  everlasting  snow,  through  the  sublimest 
scenery  that  the  eyes  of  man  ever  dwelt  on.  There 
are  curves,  tunnels,  bridges,  viaducts,  switchbacks, 
almost  without  number. 

What  the  railway  is  as  a marvel  of  engineering 


102 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


construction  can  be  exhibited  in  no  better  way  than 
by  a simple  table  giving  the  distances  and  heights 
above  sea-level  and  the  “ V’s  ” and  “ V V’s,”  or 
switchbacks  and  double  switchbacks. 

DISTANCES  AND  ELEVATION  ABOVE  SEA-LEVEL  OF  THE 
CENTRAL  RAILWAY  OF  PERU 


Name  of  station 

Distance 
in  miles 

Elevation 
in  feet 

Callao 

0.0 

8.7 

Lima 

7.7 

499.9 

Santa  Clara 

18.3 

311.7 

Chosica 

33.6 

2,800.6 

Cocachacra 

45.0 

4,622.6 

San  Bartolomew,  station  and  switchback 

47.1 

4,959.4 

Agua  de  Verrugas,  bridge 

51.9 

5,839.4 

Cuesta  Blanca,  tunnel 

52.8 

6,001.1 

Surco 

56.5 

6,660.9 

Challapa,  bridge 

61.8 

7,504.1 

Matucana 

63.9 

7.788.8 

Quebrada  Negra,  bridge 

65.5 

8,054.1 

Tambo  de  Viso,  bridge 

68.8 

8,706.5 

Chaupichaca,  bridge 

73.0 

9,472.6 

Tamboraque,  switchback 

74.9 

9,826.9 

Aruri,  switchback 

76.3 

10,094.5 

San  Mateo 

78.7 

10,534.1 

Infiernillo,  bridge,  and  tunnels  .... 

80.4 

10,919.9 

Cacray,  double  switchback 

81.6 

11,033.1 

Anchi,  bridge 

83.9 

11,306.4 

Copa,  bridge 

84.8 

11,638.8 

Chicla,  lower  switchback 

88.0 

12,215.5 

Chicla,  upper  switchback 

90.0 

12,697.1 

Casapalca 

95.5 

13,606.2 

Galera,  tunnel 

106.4 

15,665.0 

Yauli 

120.5 

13,420.8 

Oroya 

138.0 

12,178.7 

I travelled  up  the  road  tourist  fashion  in  the  regular 
passenger  train,  but  that  gives  only  a faint  idea  of  the 


Scene  on  the  Oroya  Railway,  San  Bartolomew  Switchback  and  Grade 


LIMA  AND  THE  CORDILLERAS  103 


wonders  of  the  railway  or  the  splendor  of  the  scenery^ 
The  down  trip  is  the  best  for  observationo  This  can 
be  taken  on  an  open  flat  car  which  is  used  for  the 
bags  of  ore.  Sometimes  the  railway  oflicials  transport 
favored  guests  part  of  the  way  down  in  hand  cars,  but 
while  the  experience  is  thrilling  enough  to  satisfy  the 
craving  of  the  most  exacting  nature,  the  pace  is  too 
swift  to  give  a chance  for  observation.  I repeat,  the 
proper  way  is  on  an  open  freight  car. 

The  tunnel  and  bridge,  or  viaduct  it  might  be  called, 
like  a cobweb  reaching  from  the  gorge  up  to  the  sky, 
which  generally  is  most  sought  after  for  experiences,  is 
Infiernillo,  or  Little  Hell,  also  called  the  Devil’s 
Bridge.  The  elevation  here  is  10,920  feet.  The 
road  plunges  out  of  one  tunnel  and  across  the  great 
cobweb  of  steel  and  iron  into  another  tunnel. 

The  principal  station  is  Casapalca.  It  is  here  that 
the  biggest  smelting-works  are  located.  Both  silver 
and  copper  are  treated.  Black  Mountain  Peak  is  the 
dominating  spur  in  this  neighborhood.  Its  height 
is  17,600  feet.  San  Bartolomew  and  Verrugas  are  the 
places  that  have  a sad  fame  for  the  peculiar  malady 
known  as  verrugas,  or  bleeding  warts.  It  is  a deadly 
and  malignant  disease  of  the  blood,  is  of  native  origin 
and  confined  to  a limited  area.  Its  ravages  were 
frightful  among  the  laborers  who  built  the  road,  but 
it  rarely  is  heard  of  now. 

The  most  glorious  views  of  the  valleys  shut  in  by 
the  colossal  precipices  are  at  San  Mateo  and  Yauli. 
On  the  up  trip,  until  Chosica  is  reached,  the  valley  of 
the  Rimac  is  broad  and  regular,  a panorama  of  green 
and  yellow  and  white,  — alfalfa,  corn,  sugar-cane,  and 
cotton.  Here,  too,  the  ruined  terraces  on  the  steep 


104 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


mountain  sides,  vestiges  of  the  Inca  system  of  aque- 
ducts and  irrigation,  are  numerous. 

Mt.  Meiggs,  17,575  feet  high,  is  the  marker  for  the 
Galera  tunnel.  The  mountain  is  snow-clad.  Ordi- 
narily the  flagstaff  on  the  peak  is  visible.  The  tunnel 
is  three-quarters  of  a mile  long.  On  the  down  trip  I 
noticed  that  we  were  four  minutes  in  passing  through 
it.  The  time,  it  might  be  supposed,  would  seem  longer 
than  it  is,  yet  my  guess  was  three  minutes,  and  I was 
surprised  when  the  watch  showed  a minute  more.  The 
cold  air  draughts  were  invigorating,  like  tempered  blasts 
from  an  ice  furnace,  and  there  were  to  me  no  disagree- 
able sensations.  I merely  wondered  when  and  how  we 
would  get  out. 

Many  persons  who  take  this  journey  complain  of 
the  siroche,  or  mountain  sickness,  the  nausea  and 
headache  destroying  their  pleasure.  For  those  who 
suffer  from  this  distemper  a good  plan  is  to  allow 
tv/o  days  for  the  trip  and  stop  over  night  at  one 
of  the  stations  half-way  up,  Matucana  being  the  most 
convenient. 

Night  trains  never  have  been  run  on  the  line,  but 
this  innovation  may  be  made.  Practical  railroad  men 
say  that  there  is  no  more  danger  in  the  night  than  in 
the  day,  for  in  the  daytime,  with  so  many  abrupt  curves 
and  tunnels,  it  never  is  possible  to  see  very  far  ahead, 
and  the  locomotive  headlight  might  really  be  an  ad- 
vantage. The  chief  trouble  of  the  railway  manage- 
ment is  in  preventing  landslides,  but  the  greatest 
damage  has  been  wrought  by  cloudbursts. 

The  Central  Railway  was  built  in  order  to  cheapen 
the  transportation  of  the  ores  and  the  minerals  to  the 
seaboard.  The  bulk  of  the  traffic  always  will  be  in 


LIMA  AND  THE  CORDILLERAS  105 


one  direction,  though  with  the  development  of  the 
Andine  region  a considerable  increase  in  agricultural 
products  and  general  merchandise  in  both  directions 
may  be  expected.  The  management  has  not  always 
been  alive  to  its  own  opportunities  as  a freight  carrier. 
Various  companies  formed  to  exploit  the  coal  deposits 
were  discouraged  by  the  railway  officials  on  the  ground 
that  the  railroad  would  be  put  to  too  much  trouble  in 
hauling  the  output  if  the  mines  proved  successful ! 

Oroya  is  snuggled  in  among  four  canons^  which 
branch  off  almost  at  the  points  of  the  compass. 
There  are  gigantic  granite  and  limestone  wedges 
which  split  the  town  into  triangles  and  have  resulted 
in  two  distinct  villages  on  the  bends  of  the  river. 

O 

The  elevation  of  Oroya  is  12,179  peaks 

around  are  easily  a thousand  feet  higher,  and  a climb 
up  one  of  them  gives  the  most  splendid  view  of  moun- 
tain grandeur  that  I have  seen  in  any  quarter  of  the 
world.  I have  pleasing  memories  of  several  days 
spent  in  this  neighborhood  in  amateur  explorations. 

Oroya  is  a good  place  in  which  to  observe  the  native 
life,  both  that  of  the  cholos,  or  mixed  race,  and  the  pure 
Indians.  All  that  is  characteristic  of  civilization  or 
partial  civilization  in  the  heart  of  the  Andes  may  be 
seen  here.  The  Quichua,  or  aboriginal  Indian  race, 
seems  to  have  preserved  its  identity  side  by  side  with 
the  tincture  of  Spanish  or  Caucasian  blood  which  has 
produced  the  cholo.  They  appeared  to  me  a reason- 
ably industrious  people,  especially  the  women. 

Oroya  is  the  mining-centre  for  all  this  district  and 
is  the  outlet  for  Cerro  de  Pasco.  It  used  to  be  a 
vastly  interesting  trip  by  the  highway  from  Oroya  to 
Cerro  de  Pasco,  and  the  interest  is  not  greatly  lessened 


106 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


now  that  the  American  syndicate  which  controls  the 
copper  and  silver  mines  has  built  a railway  87  miles 
long.  The  railroad  follows  the  canon  for  15  miles, 
and  then  strikes  across  the  great  level  plain,  or  pampa, 
of  Junin,  which  it  leaves  at  the  foothills  in  order  to 
climb  up  to  Cerro  de  Pasco.  The  elevation  of  this 
mining-town  is  14,200  feet. 

A pyramid  on  this  plain  catches  the  eye,  and  the 
inquiry  is  made  as  to  its  significance.  It  is  the  his- 
toric monument  marking  the  last  battle  between  the 
Spanish  forces  and  the  patriots  in  the  war  for  Indepen- 
dence. The  town  of  Junin  near  the  lake  of  the  same 
name,  while  it  is  one  of  mud  huts  and  grass-thatched 
dwellings,  is  clean  and  pleasing  in  appearance. 

I never  met  quite  so  many  weather  changes  as  were 
encountered  in  riding  across  this  pampa  of  Junin. 
We  were  in  the  midst  of  clouds  so  thick  that  thev 
wet  us  through.  Just  ahead  was  a broad  level  of 
sunlight,  and  beyond  that  a driving  snow-storm,  and 
we  found  the  sunlight  and  the  snow  exactly  as  they 
had  appeared.  There  was  a hail-storm  which  we  also 
saw  ahead  of  us.  When  it  was  pelting  us,  we  could 
look  back  and  through  the  snow  see  the  sunlit  plain 
and  then  the  violet  mantle  of  the  clouds. 

Cerro  de  Pasco  is  a cold  place,  but  the  Montana 
people  who  are  engaged  in  developing  the  mines  say 
that  they  like  the  climate,  and  they  compare  it  ap- 
provingly to  that  of  their  own  State.  Heretofore  the 
silver  output  has  been  the  great  source  of  the  wealth 
of  this  region.  It  is  a story  of  the  romance  of  always 
romantic  mining  history.  It  was  in  1630  that  an 
Indian  shepherd,  having  made  a fire  to  cook  his 
humble  meal  and  warm  his  hands,  found  the  stones 


Pyramid  of  Junin 


i 

I 


Independence  Monument,  Lima 


1 


. LIMA  AND  THE  CORDILLERAS  107 


covered  with  silver  threads.  That  was  the  beginning 
of  the  silver  mining,  and  since  then  450,000,000 
ounces  are  known  to  have  been  taken  out.  The 
quantity  was  probably  much  larger,  because  the  Span- 
ish tax  of  one-fifth  was  so  heavy  that  it  put  a premium 
on  evading  it.  The  American  capitalists  who  invested 
in  the  Cerro  de  Pasco  region  did  so  chiefly  with 
the  purpose  of  developing  the  copper  deposits.  By 
the  burros  and  other  pack  animals  the  freight  for  the 
copper  ore  down  to  the  railway  at  Oroya  amounted  to 
^40  per  ton.  That  is  why  the  first  move  of  the 
Americans  was  to  build  the  railway  to  connect  Cerro 
de  Pasco  with  Oroya.  The  coal  outcroppings  also 
gave  encouragement  that  the  smelters  which  were 
erected  could  secure  cheap  fuel.  The  money  actually 
paid  out  in  buying  the  mining  properties  and  in  build- 
ing the  railway  was  understood  to  be  1 8,000,000. 
The  probability  is  that  at  the  present  time  the  cash 
investment  is  not  less  than  $10,000,000,  and  the  capi- 
talists are  considering  another  outlay  to  the  amount 
of  $15,000,000,  to  build  a railway  paralleling  the 
Oroya  road  down  to  the  coast,  unless  the  London 
directors  of  the  Peruvian  Corporation  make  satisfac- 
tory traffic  arrangements  for  freighting  the  copper  and 
the  bullion  turned  over  to  their  line. 

Should  the  yet  untouched  mineral  wealth  of  the 
Cerro  de  Pasco  district  prove  a fraction  of  what  the 
mining-experts  have  declared  it  to  be,  the  output  of 
ore  will  be  only  in  its  initial  stages  when  the  inter- 
oceanic  canal  is  opened  and  the  advantages  of  this 
route  are  set  off  against  the  long  course  around  Cape 
Horn  to  Liverpool  or  New  York.  American  pri- 
vate enterprise  in  the  heart  of  the  Andes  will  respond 


108 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


to  American  national  enterprise  on  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  and  the  pleasing  historic  memories  of  Lima 
will  be  blended  with  the  more  pleasing  prospect  of 
the  Cordilleras’  contribution  to  the  material  progress 
of  Peru  and  her  people. 


CHAPTER  VII 


AREQUIPA  AND  LAKE  TITICACA 

Capital  of  Southern  Peru  — Through  the  Desert  to  the  Coast  — 
Crescent  Sand-hills  — A Mirage  — Down  the  Canon  — 
^ilca  as  a Haven  of  Unrest  — Arequipa  Again  — Religious 
Institutions  — Prevalence  of  Indian  Race  — W wl  and  Other 
Industries  — Harvard  Observatory — Railroading  over  V il- 
canic  Ranges  — Mountain  Sickness  at  High  Crossing  — 
Branch  Line  toward  Cuzco — Inambari  Rubber  Regions  — 
Puno  on  the  Lake  Shore. 

Arequipa  is  the  commercial,  ecclesiastical,  and 
political  capital  of  southern  Peru.  It  has  a 
university,  several  colleges,  an  Institute  of  Agriculture, 
and  a School  of  Arts.  A fairer  city  never  bloomed  in 
volcanic  desert.  The  valley  of  the  river  Chili  is  so 
vividly  green  that  it  seems  alive.  The  snow  cap  of 
the  extinct  crater  of  El  Misti  is  ever  in  sight,  while 
the  fleecy  dome  of  Coropuna  and  the  glistening  pin- 
nacle of  Chachani  stand  out  like  sentinels  in  white 
robes,  all  of  them  above  19,000  feet.  Their  icy  breath 
is  seldom  felt,  for  Arequipa  enjoys  the  balmiest  climate 
that  mortal  could  long  for.  It  banishes  pulmonary 
diseases.  Life  is  gentle  in  this  soft  atmosphere,  yet 
some  persons  complain  that  the  night  air  chills  the 
marrow.  The  mean  temperature  is  57°  Fahrenheit, 
but  water  freezes  in  June  and  July. 

Arequipa,  which  is  in  south  latitude  16°  24',  is 
7,500  feet  above  sea-level,  about  the  altitude  of  the 


110 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


City  of  Mexico.  The  railway  from  Mollendo  winds 
along  the  shore  and  through  the  volcanic  soil  for  io6 
miles  to  reach  the  city,  climbing  almost  spirally.  This 
road  was  the  first  experience  of  Henry  Meiggs  as 
a railway  builder  in  Peru.  He  took  it  as  a sub- 
contractor, and  spent  ^500,000  in  supplying  fresh 
water  to  the  laborers  and  the  animals  during  the 
eighteen  months  which  its  construction  required.  The 
length  of  the  entire  main  trunk  from  Mollendo  to 
Lake  Titicaca  is  330  miles. 

A better  idea  of  the  region  which  lies  between  Are- 
quipa  and  the  coast  is  had  by  the  slower  mode  of 
travel  with  horse  or  mule.  I made  this  journey  in 
company  with  two  others  during  one  of  those  periods 
when  the  port  of  Mollendo  was  closed  on  account  of 
the  bubonic  plague,  and  when  in  order  to  get  out  of 
the  country  it  was  necessary  to  reach  the  little  port 
of  Quilca  forty  miles  north  of  Mollendo.  Leaving 
the  railway  at  Vitor,  an  hour’s  run  from  Arequipa,  we 
took  the  animals  and  started  across  the  sand-hills  to 
the  ranch  of  Santa  Rosa.  It  is  the  only  habitation 
in  fifteen  miles,  for  there  is  no  possibility  of  human 
dwelling  amid  those  dunes.  Stone  heaps  have  been 
placed  at  various  points  to  mark  the  route  which  is 
followed  by  the  llamas  and  the  burros  and  the  occa- 
sional wayfarer,  but  the  frequent  wind-storms  cover 
the  mounds  and  they  are  not  always  to  be  discerned. 

It  is  the  region  of  the  famous  moving  sands  and 
travelling  hills.  An  experienced  desert  traveller,  if  he 
should  be  without  a pocket  compass,  might  “ sense  ” 
the  direction  for  the  first  half  of  the  distance  from  the 
contour  of  the  mountain  range  on  the  horizon.  After 
that  his  danger  of  losing  himself  would  not  be  so 


AREQUIPA  AND  LAKE  TITICACA  111 


great,  for  there  is  an  ascent  to  the  top  of  a ridge  of 
hills,  and  the  landmarks  here  are  more  stable.  The 
descent  is  down  the  flank  of  the  barranca,  or  ravine, 
into  the  river  valley.  This  is  diversified  by  several 
pretty  jincas,  or  farms.  The  dwellings  are  of  adobe 
or  bamboo.  Alfalfa  is  raised  and  is  the  common 
fodder.  There  are  also  vineyards,  some  of  them 
quite  extensive. 

We  put  up  for  the  night  at  the  finca  of  the  former 
prefect  of  the  Department.  The  owner  of  the  estate 
was  away,  but  the  Indian  tenants  in  charge  gave 
us  the  hospitality  of  their  dwellings,  — the  privilege 
of  spreading  our  blankets  in  one  of  the  cabins  while 
they  prepared  for  us  the  always  appetizing  broth,  or 
chupe. 

We  were  up  with  the  stars  in  the  morning,  for  fifty 
miles  had  to  be  covered  in  order  to  reach  the  ocean, 
and  there  was  no  intervening  shelter,  no  camping- 
place, — only  billowy  sand-plain,  rugged  ravine,  and 
sombre  canon.  One  of  the  Indian  lads  acted  as  our 
guide  till  we  had  wound  our  way  up  through  the  steep 
ravine  and  again  out  on  the  open.  Then  he  gave  us 
some  hints  to  keep  from  losing  our  way  and  bade 
us  “ adios.” 

The  pampa  was  spotted  with  many  curious  forma- 
tions of  white  sand  in  half-moon  and  crescent  form, 
geometrical  figures,  as  the  whims  of  the  winds  had 
willed  it.  Some  of  these  had  gaps  or  circular  passes  ; 
others  could  be  passed  by  circling  around  the  foot- 
hills, while  still  others  could  be  surmounted  only  by 
a straight-away  ride  ahead  to  the  crest  and  down  the 
slope.  The  sand  was  packed  so  tight  that  it  with- 
stood the  animal’s  heels  as  readily  as  a paved  road. 


112 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


This  vista  of  crystal  crescent  sand-hills  impressed  me 
as  of  a gigantic  Turkish  scymitar  beginning  in  the  lim- 
itless desert  and  stretching  to  the  unbounded  horizon. 

There  was  no  vegetation,  not  even  a blade  of  tuft 
grass  or  of  the  common  cactus,  nothing  for  the  sight 
except  the  half  horns  of  sand  and  the  unbroken  level 
of  the  pampa  stretching  ahead  to  the  sloping  moun- 
tain wall  which  seemed  to  lie  straight  across  the  path. 
But  though  the  plain  was  absolutely  barren,  experi- 
ments have  shown  that  this  sterile  soil  is  capable  of 
producing  in  infinite  variety,  if  only  it  is  given  water. 
The  rain,  if  it  could  fall,  would  bring  the  oasis  in  a 
single  season.  Provide  artesian  wells,  bring  the  snow 
rivulets  down  from  Coropuna  by  the  methods  of 
modern  irrigation,  and  this  desert  becomes  carpeted 
with  the  verdure  of  growing  green  grain  and  yellow 
ripening  fruit. 

In  bargaining  at  Arequipa  for  the  animals,  we  had 
been  fortunate  enough  to  secure  cargo  mules  for  our 
baggage  and  good  horses  for  ourselves.  At  every 
level  stretch  the  horses  took  the  bridle  and  cantered 
off,  racing  for  miles  until  checked  by  the  riders. 
Then,  after  a few  minutes  of  slower  pace,  again  the 
canter  and  the  exhilaration  of  the  Arab  on  his  Sahara 
steed.  In  this  manner  the  snow-peaks  of  Coropuna 
and  the  crystal  apex  of  Chachani  were  lost  to  sight 
before  the  mid-day  rest,  and  the  sheet  of  glistening 
water  ahead  ceased  to  fret  us  or  puzzle  us  to  deter- 
mine how  a lake  came  there.  It  was  the  mirage, 
the  quavering  effect  of  the  hot  and  dry  atmosphere  on 
the  white  sands. 

When  the  base  of  the  mountain  spur  was  reached, 
we  found  it  an  easy  climb  to  the  ridge,  and  then 


AREQUIPA  AND  LAKE  TITICACA  113 


plunged  down  a long  ravine  and  up  again  to  another 
plain  partly  shut  in  by  the  hills.  The  woman  member 
of  our  party  claimed  the  privilege  of  her  sex  to  ques- 
tion and  doubt.  She  was  sure  we  were  getting  lost. 
The  glint  of  the  sea  far  off  did  not  reassure  her.  She 
insisted  that  we  were  going  in  the  wrong  direction. 
We  should  be  headed  southwest  in  order  to  reach  the 
coast,  and  she  had  satisfied  herself  that  we  were  go- 
ing northeast.  I took  out  my  pocket  compass  to 
convince  her.  Our  actual  direction  was  north.  We 
had  made  one  turn,  and  the  gorge  through  which  we 
had  to  descend  in  order  to  reach  the  sea  required 
another  turn,  but  she  maintained  to  the  end  that  we 
might  have  got  there  by  some  other  route. 

The  canon  had  many  crevasses,  clefts,  and  gashes, 
but  none  of  these  was  wide  enough  to  turn  us  aside, 
and  after  a time  we  reached  the  willow  marshes  and 
forded  the  Vitor  River.  Then  a very  steep  climb  to 
the  hill,  which  was  crowned  by  the  church,  and  we 
were  in  Quilca.  The  caleta^  or  cove,  which  constitutes 
the  port,  lies  below,  and  it  took  a half-hour’s  winding 
ride  to  get  there. 

The  vessel  for  Callao  which  we  had  hoped  would 
be  waiting  had  put  in  and  out  four  hours  earlier. 
When  another  ship  would  be  along,  no  one  could  tell. 
The  last  passengers  who  had  come  overland  had 
waited  for  two  weeks.  Every  day  we  climbed  the 
outjutting  cliff  and  scanned  the  sea,  watched  some 
vessels  go  by  without  heeding  our  signals,  and  said 
harsh  things  of  them.  Then  we  dug  into  some  of 
the  aboriginal  huts.  The  work  was  hot  and  not  inter- 
esting enough  to  be  pursued.  The  villagers  had  some 
relics,  but  the  most  valuable  ones  and  those  which 

8 


114 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


indicated  the  highest  lost  civilization  had  come  from 
the  interior.  Mica  deposits  abounded  in  the  vicinity, 
and  a passing  American  miner  had  posted  up  the  legal 
denunciation,  or  claim,  to  them.  The  copper  and 
gold  mines  were  a hundred  miles  back  somewhere  in 
the  red  volcanic  hills. 

The  people  were  a kindly  folk,  and  a vacant  house 
was  put  at  our  disposal.  They  loaned  us  chairs,  and 
our  own  sleeping-bags  and  blankets  were  all  the  rest 
of  the  furniture  that  was  necessary.  But  the  fleas  ! 
Neither  Texas,  Havana,  nor  San  Francisco  ever  bred 
fleas  equal  to  those  in  the  sands  of  Quilca.  Fortu- 
nately for  us  a big  shipment  of  cattle  was  coming 
down  from  the  interior,  and  the  owner  had  more 
influence  with  the  steamship  company  than  we  had. 
I had  spent  a small  fortune  in  cables.  Mr.  Meier, 
our  consul  at  Mollendo,  had  reenforced  me,  and  our 
minister  in  Lima  was  enlisting  the  full  influence 
of  the  government.  But  all  this  would  have  been 
without  avail  if  the  steamship  managers  had  not 
decided  to  put  in  and  take  the  cattle  away  and  the 
waiting  passengers  with  them.  Consequently  instead 
of  a fortnight  our  stay  was  less  than  a week. 

But  back  to  Arequipa.  It  is  a blending  of  old  and 
new  towns,  a grouping  of  sandstone  houses  and  euca- 
lyptus or  camphor  trees  surrounded  by  greenish-white 
hills.  The  streets  are  fairly  wide,  and  have  open 
drainage,  which  is  facilitated  by  the  slope.  They  are 
not  kept  too  clean.  Blue  is  the  dominant  color  of  the 
dwellings  and  other  buildings.  Ambitious  and  some- 
what gaudy  decoration  is  attempted  in  the  way  of 
painting  the  outside  walls.  The  subject  and  the  exe- 
cution generally  are  more  novel  than  artistic.  The 


View  of  Arequipa  and  the  Crater  of  El  Misti 


, xi* 


AREQUIPA  AND  LAKE  TITICACA  115 

place  has  a peculiarity  that  I did  not  note  elsewhere. 
The  tiendaSj  or  stores,  the  dwellings  of  the  poorer 
classes  and  of  some  of  the  fairly  well-to-do,  are  tent- 
shaped with  whitewashed  mortar  roofs.  These  give 
to  the  section  of  the  town  lying  along  the  river  the 
look  of  a permanent  camp.  The  public  institutions, 
the  Carmen  Monastery,  the  hospitals,  are  shut  in  by 
mortar  walls.  The  thermal  springs  of  iron  and  sul- 
phur are  a few  miles  distant  at  Yura. 

Arequipa  is  a city  of  churches.  One  side  of  the 
plaza  of  San  Francisco  is  taken  up  by  the  Cathedral. 
It  is  a new  structure,  rebuilt  after  the  earthquake  of 
1868,  and  was  consecrated  in  1893.  It  is  roomy,  but 
not  notable  as  an  example  of  ecclesiastical  architecture. 
There  are  twin  spires,  and  an  arch  at  either  end,  the 
front  being  of  smooth  white  lava  rock.  The  Cathedral 
is  not  meant  to  be  an  earthquake  tempter  ; that  is  the 
reason  for  its  simplicity  of  construction.  Other  churches 
are  much  more  mediaeval  and  therefore  much  more 
picturesque.  One  of  them  has  been  partly  wrecked 
by  a seismic  disturbance. 

Arequipa  has  been  noted  for  its  religious  intolerance. 
This  has  entered  into  political  affairs  and  has  made  it 
the  centre  of  reactionary  influences.  Sometimes  this 
reactionism  has  been  the  basis  of  revolutions  or  at- 
tempted revolutions  against  governments  of  liberal 
tendencies.  But  this  spirit  is  slowly  yielding.  Ex- 
President  Edward  Romana,  who,  notwithstanding  his 
education  at  a Jesuit  college  in  England,  antagonized 
the  reactionary  clerical  influence,  has  an  estate  near 
Arequipa  and  makes  it  his  home.  His  administra- 
tion was  of  immense  good  in  carrying  Peru  through 
a critical  period. 


116 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


Despite  its  inheritance  of  Spanish  blood  and  cus- 
toms, Arequipa  still  illustrates  the  predominance  of  the 
Indian  type.  Natives  with  their  burros  and  llamas 
fill  the  streets,  gossiping  and  sometimes  working.  The 
official  and  higher  classes  show  their  Spanish  origin. 
In  the  morning  the  women  on  their  way  to  church 
with  their  black  shawls  and  mantillas  wrapped  around 
them  are  followed  by  the  servants  carrying  chairs, 
but  in  the  afternoon  and  evening  the  sombre  mantillas 
are  changed  for  Paris  hats  and  smart  gowns,  and  the 
brightness  of  Andalusia  sparkles  in  those  piercing 
black  eyes. 

Like  Lima,  Arequipa  was  founded  by  Pizarro ; and, 
like  Lima,  it  has  its  earthquake  history.  The  record 
runs  quite  evenly. 

The  population  is  35,000.  There  are  a number  of 
local  industries,  including  a cotton  factory  and  flour- 
mills, and  it  is  the  mining-centre  for  all  the  region  that 
extends  Up  to  Lake  Titicaca  and  beyond.  It  also  is 
beginning  to  be  a possible  centre  of  the  rubber  export. 
The  Inca  Company,  which  controls  the  Santo  Domingo 
gold-mines  and  which  has  valuable  concessions  for 
opening  up  the  Inambari  rubber  region,  has  its  head- 
quarters in  Arequipa.  But  the  chief  trade  comes  from 
the  wool  industry.  All  the  alpaca  and  other  wools 
are  marketed  here.  The  alpaca  wools  are  divided  into 
two  grades,  the  production  of  the  superior  being  about 
two  and  a half  times  as  large  as  the  inferior.  Much 
of  the  wool  is  handled  by  American  firms  and  is 
shipped  to  New  York  and  Boston.  The  vicuna,  or 
finer  grade,  is  shipped  to  France,  and  some  of  it  finds 
its  way  back  to  the  United  States  in  the  form  of 
expensive  rugs. 


AREQUIPA  AND  LAKE  TITICACA  117 


The  foreign  colony  of  Arequipa  includes  a number 
of  Americans  engaged  in  mining,  wool,  railroading,  and 
miscellaneous  business.  The  Harvard  Astronomical 
Observatory,  half-way  up  the  slope  of  El  Misti,  insures 
the  presence  of  cultured  Americans.  During  my  visit 
Professor  Bailey,  the  director,  was  off  on  a trip  to  the 
rubber  country,  and  I did  not  have  the  privilege  of 
meeting  him. 

The  journey  from  Arequipa  up  to  Lake  Titicaca 
affords  a day  of  varied  mountain  scenery.  The  valley 
of  the  Chili  is  like  a green  thread  looped  or  knotted 
somewhere  far  down  amid  the  volcanic  mountains. 
Conical  and  domelike  snow-peaks,  cupolas,  apexes, 
pagodas,  and  pinnacles  are  scaled,  gorges  entered,  and 
cross-chasms  passed.  These  do  not  have  to  be 
bridged.  Since  there  is  no  rainfall  and  no  snow- 
slides  from  the  distant  peaks,  the  abysses  are  filled  in 
and  ballasted  for  the  roadbed.  Besides  the  long  via- 
duct at  Arequipa  and  a bridge  across  the  gorge  at 
Sumbay,  there  are  no  bridges  on  this  railroad,  hardly 
any  culverts,  and  no  long  tunnels.  The  earth’s  sur- 
face is  igneous  soil,  ridges  of  lava  and  plains  of  pumice 
stone.  In  some  places  the  lava  bowlders  stand  out 
in  isolated,  grotesque  forms,  the  play  of  the  fancy  to 
name  them.  I amused  myself  for  an  hour  in  this 
manner.  The  sulphur  deposits  ought  to  have  a dis- 
tinct commercial  value.  There  is  brimstone  enough 
for  a continent. 

The  railroad,  in  the  parlance  of  the  South,  “ coons  ” 
the  ridges  at  a maximum  grade  of  4 per  cent.  A 
gentle  slope  is  reached,  and  we  are  on  the  edge  of  a 
plain  intersected  with  clear  streams  over  which  hover 
many  beautiful  species  of  water-fowl.  I have  not  seen 


118 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


elsewhere  so  great  a variety.  The  pampa  has  some 
coarse  grass  and  mosses,  but  no  fir  brush  or  even  cac- 
tus. Patches  of  melting  snow  diversify  it.  Droves 
of  llamas,  alpacas,  sheep,  and  even  the  rare  vicunas 
with  their  ruddy  skins  are  seen  ; the  latter  seem  to 
me  more  like  red  deer.  The  sun  is  bright,  and  though 
the  air  is  sharp  the  cold  is  not  penetrating  ; when  the 
train  pauses,  one  can  step  out  on  the  platform  without 
shivering. 

A hill  covered  with  brown  bowlders  in  the  back- 
ground, rounded  and  sloping  mountains  a little 
farther  away,  an  ordinary  railway  station  house,  some 
huts  close  by  with  groups  of  Indian  women  and 
children  huddled  in  the  doorways,  and  the  sign-post 
says,  “Crucero  Alto — 14,660  feet.”  It  is  High 
Crossing,  the  summit  of  the  Divide.  From  Vinco- 
caya,  at  a height  of  14,360  feet,  to  Crucero  Alto,  the 
distance  is  20  miles,  and  the  approach  to  the  summit 
is  so  gentle  that  it  scarcely  is  perceptible  as  an  up- 
grade. 

Several  of  the  passengers  have  been  complaining  for 
an  hour  of  headache  and  nausea,  the  unmistakable 
siroche,  or  mountain  sickness.  They  tell  those  of  us 
who  are  exempt  that  they  always  have  it  at  this  point. 
They  are  relieved  when  the  descent  has  been  begun. 
The  railway  follows  through  many  turns  and  twists 
along  the  flanks  of  volcanic  precipices  until  a chain  of 
lakes  lying  in  the  basin  breaks  on  the  view, — a fine 
sight,  the  placid  surfaces  soothingly  suggestive  for 
irritated  nerves  and  rebellious  stomachs.  No  more 
siroche ! These  mountain  mirrors  are  Lakes  Sara- 
cocha  and  Cachipuscana,  13,600  feet  above  sea-level, 
1,000  feet  higher  than  Lake  Titicaca.  The  smelter 


AREQUIPA  AND  LAKE  TITICACA  119 

for  the  silver  mines  is  located  at  Maravillas  in  this 
lake  region. 

At  Juliaca  the  branch  road  runs  off  to  Sicuani, 
87  miles  away,  whence  a cart-road,  now  traversed 
by  a traction  automobile,  continues  to  Cuzco,  the 
historic  Inca  capital  and  still  the  seat  of  all  that  is 
most  interesting  in  Peru,  both  in  ruins  and  in  what- 
ever relates  to  the  descendants  of  the  Incas.  Ancient 
Cuzco’s  future  as  a modern  city  will  commence  when 
it  becomes  a station  between  Buenos  Ayres  and  Lima 
on  the  Intercontinental  Trunk  Line.  An  important 
step  in  this  development  was  taken  in  1905,  when  the 
government  contracted  with  the  Peruvian  Corporation 
for  the  extension  of  the  line  from  Sicuani  and  the  first 
section,  as  far  as  Checcacupe,  was  finished.  The  route 
is  along  the  river  Vilcanata  through  a populous  and 
well-cultivated  valley,  where  the  products  of  the 
temperate  zone  abound.  There  are  rich  tributary 
districts  which  will  be  benefited  by  the  lowering  of 
freight  rates,  and  encouragement  also  will  be  given 
to  immigration  through  the  easier  access  to  Puno 
and  Mollendo. 

The  station  of  Tirapata  is  the  starting-point  for  the 
Santo  Domingo  gold-mines  in  the  Province  of  Cara- 
baya,  which  have  been  developed  by  an  American  com- 
pany, the  Inca,  composed  of  California  miners  and 
Pennsylvania  oil-men.  Some  of  the  ore  runs  ^4,000 
to  the  ton.  The  journey  to  the  mines  occupies  five 
days.  The  company,  in  opening  up  a through  line 
of  communication  to  the  railway,  has  accomplished 
some  daring  engineering  work  in  building  cable 
suspension  bridges  across  the  chasms.  They  are 
narrow,  and  the  newcomer  who  knows  he  is  under 


120 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


observation  and  wants  to  show  his  nerve,  rides  his 
mule  along  the  frail  suspended  framework  and  makes 
a pretence  of  looking  with  unconcern  into  the  gaping 
abyss.  But  after  one  demonstration  of  his  physical 
bravery  he  usually  develops  moral  courage  enough 
to  get  off  and  lead  the  animal. 

The  mining  company  has  extended  its  operations 
and  has  acquired  privileges  of  rubber  exploitation 
from  the  Peruvian  government.  Under  the  contract 
it  opens  roads  and  mule  trails  into  the  forest  region, 
and  receives  land  grants  and  rubber  concessions  in 
compensation.  Ultimately  a route  will  be  opened  to 
the  head-waters  of  the  Inambari  River,  and  this  district 
will  add  to  the  output  of  crude  rubber  through  the 
port  of  Mollendo. 

The  opening  of  the  river  basins  of  the  Inambari 
and  the  Madre  de  Dios  is  essential  to  the  future 
traffic  of  the  Southern  Railway.  In  a message  to 
Congress  in  1905  the  President  of  Peru  stated  that 
the  bridle-paths  and  cart-roads  under  construction, 
or  contracted  for,  aggregated  1,300  miles.  A grant 
of  2,000,000  acres  of  land  was  authorized  with  the 
chief  purpose  of  securing  200  miles  of  wagon-road. 
Besides  the  American  syndicate  a Peruvian  company 
has  extensive  rubber  interests  along  the  left  bank  of 
the  San  Gaban.  There  are  extensive  gold  washings 
in  Carabaya  and  Sandia.  Heretofore  the  rubber  prod- 
uct of  this  region  has  followed  the  river  courses  till 
the  Amazon  was  reached  and  it  could  be  exported  to 
Europe  by  way  of  Para,  the  time  occupied  in  getting 
it  to  market  being  from  six  to  eight  months.  By 
the  cart-roads  to  Tirapata,.  ten  to  twelve  days  are 
required,  and  three  days  more  by  railway  to  Mollendo, 


Ruins  of  an  Inca  Fortress  at  Cuzco 


AREQUIPA  AND  LAKE  TITICACA  121 


whence  the  transit  to  Europe  after  the  completion  of 
the  Panama  Canal  may  be  made  in  thirty  days  or  less. 

From  Juliaca,  a distinctively  Quichua  Indian  collec- 
tion of  adobe  cabins,  to  Puno,  the  railway  line  is  again 
straight  up  and  down  over  the  mountains,  cooning 
the  ridge  once  more,  till  the  road  begins  to  follow  the 
more  crooked  courses  of  the  waterways.  It  winds 
through  a rich  agricultural  district,  plain  and  valley 
where  there  are  many  pretty  farms.  The  live-stock 
industry  seems  to  be  a flourishing  one,  for  there  are 
great  herds  of  sheep,  alpacas,  llamas,  and  some 
cattle. 

Puno,  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Titicaca,  is  12,540  feet 
above  sea-level.  It  is  a town  of  blue  buildings  lying 
in  the  concave  side  of  the  mountain.  It  is  the  head 
of  the  Department,  has  a population  of  5,000,  and  is 
the  customs  port  and  the  commercial  centre.  The 
vigilance  of  both  Peruvian  and  Bolivian  customs  offi- 
cials is  constantly  exercised  to  prevent  contraband 
trade  in  alcohol,  of  which  the  people  are  inordinately 
fond.  Indian  life  is  seen  in  many  phases,  especially 
on  Lake  Titicaca,  where  the  natives  with  their  balsas, 
straw  boats  with  square  grass  sails  and  grass  hoods 
that  open  and  shut  like  an  umbrella,  lead  a half-shore, 
half-sea  life,  fishing  and  trading.  They  did  not  seem 
to  me  an  idle  class,  but  rather  good-naturedly  willing 
to  work  if  the  labor  were  not  too  strenuous. 

Lake  navigation  begins  at  Puno,  and  since  the  place 
is  the  terminus  of  the  railroad  the  shipping  causes  an 
unusual  degree  of  activity  for  an  inter-Andine  town. 
Bolivian  commerce  comes  up  the  Desaguadero  into 
Lake  Titicaca  or  directly  across  from  the  terminus  of 
the  Bolivian  Railway  line  at  Guaqui.  The  lake  is 


122  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


interesting  because  it  is  the  highest  large  body  of 
fresh  water  on  the  globe  that  has  steam  navigation, 
but  I saw  no  evidences  of  the  peculiar  properties 
attributed  to  its  waters.  The  captains  of  these  little 
steam-vessels  are  either  Scotchmen  or  Scandinavians. 
I learned  to  my  discomfort  that  when  the  winds  were 
blowing  Titicaca  could  become  as  unruly  as  Lake 
Michigan  and  could  cause  sea-sickness.  A daring  con- 
ception of  engineering  genius  is  to  tap  the  waters  of 
Lake  Titicaca  for  the  purpose  of  securing  electric 
power  and  utilize  them  to  supply  motive  force  for  the 
railways. 

Puno  formerly  had  a considerable  trade  in  the  highly 
prized  vicuna  rugs  which  are  brought  there  by  the 
Indians,  but  the  industry  has  lagged  in  recent  years 
due  to  the  scarcity  of  the  skins.  A Chilean  estab- 
lished a factory  at  Arica,  and  most  of  the  pelts  are 
carried  across  the  Cordilleras  to  his  market.  The 
mineral  deposits  of  the  district  include  silver,  mercury, 
copper,  lead,  and  bituminous  coal.  The  latter  is  lig- 
nite, but  the  existence  of  coal-oil  or  petroleum  appears 
to  be  well  established.  The  Americans  who  control 
the  Santo  Domingo  mines  had  arranged  to  sink  wells, 
but  the  failure  to  secure  satisfactory  transportation 
rates  from  the  railroad  company  caused  them  to  give 
up  their  project. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


THE  REGIONS  AND  THEIR  RESOURCES 

Topography  a Key  to  Economic  Resources  — Coast.,  Sierra.,  and 
Montana  — Cotton  in  the  Coast  Zone  — Piura' s High  Qual- 
ity — Lima  and  Pisco  Product  — Prices  — Increase  Probable 
— Sugar-Cane  as  a Staple  — Probability  of  Growth  — Rice  as 
an  Export  and  an  Import  — Irrigation  Prospects  — Mines  in 
the  Sierra — Geographical  Distribution  of  the  Deposits  — Live- 
Stock  on  the  High  Plains  — Rubber  in  the  Forest  Region  — 
Iquitos  on  the  Amazon  a Smart  Port  — Government  Regula- 
tions for  the  Gum  Industry. 

TO  know  the  topography  of  Peru  is  to  understand 
her  economic  outlook.  The  key  to  her  indus- 
trial growth  and  to  the  mastering  motives  of  her  na- 
tional policy  is  found  in  the  knowledge  of  the  three 
zones  into  which  the  country  naturally  divides  itself. 
A lesson  in  physical  geography  is  a study  of  the  Peru- 
vian aspect  of  the  Panama  Canal. 

The  zones  are  the  Coast  Region,  relatively  1,500 
miles  in  length,  varying  in  width  from  20  to  80  miles, 
and  extending  from  the  foot  of  the  Coast  Range  to 
the  Pacific ; the  Sierra,  or  Cordilleras  of  the  Andes, 
including  the  vast  table-lands,  averaging  300  miles  in 
breadth  ; and  the  misnamed  Montana,  or  mountain 
region,  actually  the  land  of  tropical  forest,  and  plains 
extending  from  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes  to  the 
Amazon  basins.  The  settlement  of  the  boundary 
disputes  with  Ecuador,  Colombia,  Brazil,  and  Bolivia 
may  reduce  the  500,000  square  miles  of  territory 


124  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


which  Peru  claims  as  her  area,  yet  when  the  limits 
finally  are  fixed  this  trans-Andine  region  will  still  com- 
prise more  than  one-half  the  total  extent.  Its  wealth 
is  in  rubber  and  the  varied  products  of  tropical  agri- 
culture. The  Sierra,  in  the  future  as  in  the  past,  is 
for  the  minerals,  with  alpaca  wools  and  live-stock  as  an 
agricultural  addition. 

The  Coast  Zone  is  for  tropical  and  temperate  prod- 
ucts. The  principal  ones  are  the  vegetable  family,  — 
beans,  potatoes  ; the  cereals,  — wheat,  corn,  oats ; grapes 
and  the  generality  of  fruits ; rice,  tobacco,  sugar,  and 
cotton.  Except  in  reference  to  two  great  world  sta- 
ples, they  may  be  viewed  almost  solely  in  the  light  of 
domestic  consumption.  Sugar  and  cotton  are  on  a 
different  plane. 

Peruvian  cotton  production  cannot  become  large 
enough  to  affect  the  world’s  markets,  yet  it  may  be  a 
gain  to  the  national  wealth  in  the  quantity  which  can 
be  raised  for  export  and  also  for  the  domestic  spindles. 
The  sands  of  Piura  which  stretch  from  the  coast  at 
Paita  back  to  the  Cordilleras  have  in  them  possibilities 
that  are  yet  barely  dreamed.  The  cotton  tree  of  Piura 
amazes  the  beholder  when  he  sees  it  in  all  stages  of 
production,  — in  bud,  in  fleecy  blossom,  and  in  seed. 
The  quality  surprises  the  expert.  It  is  finer  than  the 
finest  Egyptian  and  is  equal  to  certain  grades  of  wool. 
It  is  known  variously  as  vegetable  wool  and  as  wool 
cotton.  Irrigation  is  employed  to  a limited  extent. 
One  ambitious  scheme  which  was  to  bring  60,000 
acres  under  cultivation  was  stopped  for  lack  of  capital. 
In  the  Chira  valley  between  90,000  and  100,000  acres 
will  be  utilized  for  production  when  a canal  56  miles 
long  is  completed,  and  the  crop  will  be  increased  by 


THE  REGIONS  AND  RESOURCES  125 


50,000  bales.  An  American  company  experimented 
on  a project  of  watering  the  Piura  lands  by  means  of 
pumps  to  be  driven  by  electric  power  from  the  river 
Quiros.  The  native  field-labor  in  this  region  is  reli- 
able, and  probably  is  as  efficient  as  that  of  the  negroes 
on  a Mississippi  plantation. 

Cotton  of  good  quality  is  raised  in  the  central  dis- 
trict of  Lima  and  in  the  southern  region  of  Pisco  and 
Ica.  While  rains  are  not  common  in  these  districts, 
the  fogs  at  certain  seasons  are  heavy  enough  to  be 
accounted  rainfall,  and  the  moisture  in  the  air  is  pre- 
cipitated in  quantities  sufficient  for  the  product,  taken 
with  the  somewhat  restricted  means  of  irrigating 
employed  on  the  plantations.  The  cotton  plant,  no 
longer  the  cotton  tree  as  in  Piura,  is  met  with  for 
fifty  miles  north  of  Lima,  and  especially  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Ancon.  The  plantations  lie  under 
and  between  the  overlapping  sand-hills,  side  by  side 
with  fields  of  sugar-cane.  Cotton  is  also  grown  from 
the  north  along  the  river  Rimac  to  the  lower  slope 
of  the  Cordilleras. 

Farther  south  from  Pisco  the  region  extends  as  far 
as  the  little  port  of  Cerro  de  Azul,  where  an  excellent 
quality  is  obtained.  This  is  sent  north  to  Panama  for 
transport  across  the  Isthmus  and  then  to  Liverpool 
instead  of  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan  or  around 
Cape  Horn ; but  the  cargoes  will  be  larger  when  the 
Canal  is  opened  and  the  expense  of  transshipment 
by  railway  across  the  Isthmus  can  be  avoided.  The 
cotton  possibilities  of  the  Pisco  region  are  as  yet 
in  their  infancy.  They  will  begin  to  unfold  when 
the  projects  for  irrigating  the  great  plain  of  Noco 
are  put  into  effect. 


126 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


Taken  as  a whole,  the  advantages  of  Peru  as  a 
cotton-producing  country  are  a suitable  climate,  the 
alluvial  soil  of  the  valleys,  the  facilities  for  irrigating 
the  sandy  plains,  and  a sufficiency  of  fairly  cheap  labor. 
The  price  of  the  land  is  a fraction  of  the  value  of  sim- 
ilar soil  in  Egypt.  An  official  publication  of  the  gov- 
ernment places  the  yield  per  acre  at  630  pounds,  of 
which  250  pounds  is  lint  cotton. 

The  Peruvian  cotton  is  free  from  boll  weevil. 
When  that  pest  was  ravaging  the  Texas  plantations, 
a thorough  inquiry  was  made  by  Minister  Dudley 
under  instructions  from  Washington,  and  the  uni- 
versal experience  of  the  cotton-growers  established 
that  their  fields  never  were  visited  by  it. 

Gins  for  baling  the  product  are  imported  both  from 
England  and  the  United  States.  Encouragement  has 
been  given  the  manufacturing  industry  in  Peru  by 
the  cotton  production.  Some  of  the  factories  have 
paid  fair  returns,  though,  as  in  the  case  of  Mexico, 
capital  went  into  mills  somewhat  heedlessly  and  in 
advance  of  the  demand  which  could  be  created  for 
the  manufactured  goods.  Factories,  making  chiefly 
the  cheaper  calicoes,  are  in  operation  at  Lima,  Ica,  and 
Arequipa,  where  the  natives  prove  satisfactory  mill- 
hands.  Part  of  the  manufactures  find  a market  in 
Bolivia.  The  total  exports  of  the  manufactured 
goods  for  a given  year  were  $110,000,  while  the 
imports  for  the  same  period  reached  $2,240,000.  The 
exports  of  raw  cotton  in  the  present  state  of  produc- 
tion are  approximately  $1,500,000  to  $1,600,000 
annually. 

What  is  known  as  the  hard  cotton,  rough,  is  pro- 
duced in  the  Piura  region,  and  in  the  dry  years  varies 


THE  REGIONS  AND  RESOURCES  127 


from  20,000  to  30,000  bales  of  200  pounds.  The 
moderate  rough,  chiefly  from  the  Ica  district,  amounts 
to  40,000  bales.  The  hard  cotton  with  some  of  the 
moderate  rough  goes  to  the  United  States,  but  the 
greater  portion  of  the  latter  is  shipped  to  Havre  and 
Liverpool.  The  production  of  the  Egyptian,  or  soft 
cotton,  is  about  80,000  bales  per  year.  It  is  governed 
by  the  American  price,  usually  with  a premium  of 
I to  2 cents  per  pound  over  New  Orleans  middling. 
The  home  factories  consume  25,000  bales,  the  bulk 
of  the  balance  going  to  Liverpool,  though  Barcelona 
obtains  6,000  bales  and  Genoa  2,000. 

From  these  figures  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Peru- 
vian production  is  about  150,000  bales,  or  30,000,000 
pounds.  An  estimate  by  a leading  authority  of  the 
increased  production  when  idle  lands  are  brought 
under  cultivation  by  means  of  irrigation  is  375,000 
Peruvian  bales  (160,000  American),  or  75,000,000 
pounds.  Other  authorities  double  this  estimate. 

Peru  has  produced  sugar  for  many  years,  and  the 
industry  has  had  the  usual  ups  and  downs,  but  it  has 
capabilities  of  increase.  About  125,000  acres  were 
under  cultivation  in  1905,  and  25,000  persons  found 
employment  on  the  plantations  and  in  the  mills. 
Both  natives  and  Chinese  coolies  form  the  field  hands. 
The  production  for  export  in  recent  years  has  varied 
from  100,000  to  125,000  tons,  and  it  is  gradually  ad- 
vancing to  200,000,  reflecting  the  decrease  of  the  beet- 
sugar  crop  in  Europe  and  some  enhancement  of  the 
price,  though  that  is  subject  to  the  customary  fluctu- 
ations. The  average  production  may  be  placed  at 
140,000  tons,  of  which  between  20,000  and  25,000 
tons  are  consumed  at  home. 


128  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


The  raw  sugar  exported  in  the  period  from  1900  to 
1905  inclusive  ranged  in  value  from  15,000,000  to 
$y ,000,000  annually.  The  by-products,  particularly 
the  aguardiente,  or  cane  rum,  add  substantially  to 
the  value  of  the  staple.  The  alcohol,  in  addition  to 
the  local  consumption,  finds  a profitable  market  in 
Bolivia. 

The  production  of  sugar-cane  per  acre  in  Peru  is  in 
the  proportion  of  56  quintals  of  sugar  from  700  quin- 
tals of  cane.  The  plantations  are  in  the  valleys  of  the 
streams  which  flow  from  the  foot  of  the  Coast  Cordil- 
leras to  the  ocean.  Though  the  sugar  industry  is  an 
old  one  and  though  partial  irrigation  is  employed,  it  is 
doubtful  if  Peru’s  present  product  is  more  than  a frac- 
tion of  what  the  soil  can  yield  under  universal  irriga- 
tion. The  cane-producing  area  is  not  confined  to  the 
coast.  In  the  valley  of  Chanchamayo  in  the  inter- 
Andine  region  are  productive  regions,  and  also  in  the 
valley  of  the  Apurimac  River  in  southern  Peru.  It 
may  reasonably  be  said  that  within  the  next  quarter  of 
a century,  provided  the  material  development  of  the 
country  goes  forward  without  interruption,  Peru  will 
be  producing  400,000  tons  of  sugar-cane,  the  major 
portion  of  which  will  be  freighted  through  the  Pan- 
ama Canal  to  New  Orleans  or  Brooklyn  refineries  at 
lower  rates  than  can  be  had  by  shipments  through  the 
Straits  of  Magellan.  Of  the  output  some  goes  down 
the  coast  to  Chile  and  some  up  the  coast  to  San  Fran- 
cisco, a relatively  small  quantity  around  Cape  Horn 
to  Liverpool,  and  a large  quantity  across  the  Isthmus 
for  transshipment  to  New  York.  The  freight  via  the 
Straits  is  about  23  shillings  per  ton.  The  Canal  is  a 
positive  factor  in  Peruvian  sugar  production. 


THE  REGIONS  AND  RESOURCES  129 


Peru  imports  rice  for  her  own  consumption  and 
exports  it  for  foreign  consumption.  The  great  rice 
fields  are  in  the  north,  in  the  Lambayeque  valley,  and 
from  this  district  in  one  year  4,100  tons  were  exported. 
But  much  larger  imports  came  from  China.  The  in- 
dustry is  capable  of  development,  yet  chiefly  with  a 
view  to  local  consumption.  The  normal  expansion  of 
this  agricultural  industry  would  appear  to  be  in  fully 
supplying  the  home  demand  and  then  in  cultivation 
for  the  export  trade. 

Cotton,  sugar,  rice,  — all  call  for  an  artificially 
watered  soil.  Irrigation  is  ancient  in  Peru.  No 
new  system  for  intensive  cultivation  and  for  ordinary 
crops  can  be  expected  to  surpass  the  marvels  secured 
by  the  Incas.  Whether  the  ruins  of  the  artificial 
waterworks  be  those  still  observed  at  Cuzco,  the  an- 
cient seat  of  empire,  or  in  the  great  passes  of  the 
Central  Cordillera  now  traversed  by  the  railway,  or 
the  old  aqueduct  at  Chimbote,  the  wonder  does  not 
lessen.  Can  the  moderns  do  as  well  as  the  ancients  ? 
They  must  do  better.  While  they  may  not  excel 
the  Inca  system  of  aqueducts  and  of  packing  water 
up  the  perpendicular  slopes  of  the  mountains,  they 
may  surpass  them  in  inducing  production  in  the 
arid  plains.  The  topography  and  hydrography  favor 
artesian  wells  in  some  sections  and  in  others  complete 
systems  of  irrigating  ditches.  The  artesian  wells  may 
tap  those  lost  rivers  which,  starting  from  the  Cordil- 
leras, dry  up  and  reach  the  sea  through  subterranean 
channels.  The  arid  tracts  are  fertile,  probably  due 
to  the  damp  which  is  retained  for  a certain  depth 
underground. 

Peru  has  a very  excellent  irrigation  law,  the  practical 

9 


130  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


workings  of  which  are  satisfactory  and  from  which 
good  results  have  been  obtained.  The  government 
has  given  wise  attention  to  this  subject. 

The  future  growth  of  the  Coast  Region  in  wealth 
and  population  may  be  said  to  be  largely  one  of  irri- 
gating ditches  and  artesian  wells.^ 

The  treasure  beds  of  the  Andes,  as  they  have  been 
exploited  for  centuries,  are  in  the  Sierra,  though  the 
output  of  the  precious  metals  in  the  Coast  Region 
has  been  great.  The  Department  of  Ancachs,  which 
comes  down  to  the  sea,  has  enormous  mineral  wealth. 
The  district  lies  within  the  two  Andean  chains  which 
parallel  the  Pacific,  and  which  are  known  as  the 
White  Cordillera  and  the  Black  Cordillera,  the  latter 
being  nearer  the  coast.  Raimondi,  whose  studies  and 

^ On  this  general  subject  United  States  Consul  Gottschalk  quotes 
C.  Reginald  Enock,  an  English  engineer,  as  follows  : 

“Peru  possesses  a valuable  element  in  the  yet  undeveloped  hydraulic 
power  which  exists  on  both  the  eastern  and  western  slope  of  the  Cordil- 
lera of  the  Andes.  The  source  of  this  water  supply  is  the  ice  cap  above 
the  line  of  perpetual  snow  which  crowns  the  summit  of  the  range  and  the 
continual  and  exceedingly  heavy  snow  and  rain  storms  of  the  high 
plateaus.  All  along  this  vast  chain,  from  Ecuador  to  Chile,  there  exists 
a series  of  lakes,  practically  astride  the  summit  of  the  Andes,  at  altitudes 
varying  from  ii,ooo  to  17,000  feet  above  sea-level,  and  these,  together 
with  the  streams  to  which  they  give  rise,  form  the  source  of  enormous 
hydraulic  energy.  The  volumes  of  water  which  descend  upon  the  Pacific 
side  are  not  necessarily  very  great,  but  they  are  numerous  and  constant, 
and  their  fall  is  exceedingly  rapid. 

“As  an  example,  the  river  Rimac,  which  rises  in  the  ice  cap  of  the  Cor- 
dillera, at  an  elevation  of  more  than  17,000  feet,  debouches  on  the  coast 
at  Callao,  with  a course  not  more  than  80  miles  long.  This  river  is 
already  used  as  motive  power  for  generating  electricity  for  the  railway  be- 
tween Lima  and  Callao,  and  could  furnish  constant  and  unlimited  power 
over  any  portion  of  its  course.  Similar  conditions  exist,  more  or  less, 
with  the  numerous  other  rivers  and  streams  all  along  the  1,500  miles  of 
Pacific  littoral  belonging  to  Peru.” 


A Farmhouse  in  the  Forest  Region 


1 


THE  REGIONS  AND  RESOURCES  131 


surveys  were  the  basis  of  much  subsequent  exploita- 
tion, estimated  that  this  Department  could  supply  for 
export  700,000  tons  of  minerals  annually  for  an  in- 
definite number  of  years.  Silver,  gold,  and  copper 
are  the  chief  sources  of  mineral  wealth.  In  the  Cerro 
de  Pasco  district,  since  control  was  secured  by  the 
American  syndicate,  the  copper  output  is  more  im- 
portant than  the  silver  production.  Yet  it  is  doubt- 
ful whether,  notwithstanding  the  possibilities  of  the 
nobler  metals,  Peru  has  not  more  to  hope  from  coal 
as  a new  industry  during  the  next  few  years  and 
especially  during  and  after  the  Panama  Canal  con- 
struction period,  than  from  gold  and  silver. 

The  petroleum  deposits  are  in  the  north  between 
Tumbez  and  Paita,  around  Tolara,  Zorritos,  and  Cape 
Blanco.  Several  of  the  English  companies  were  not 
very  successful,  owing  to  bad  management.  The 
French  company  seemed  to  have  the  promise  of 
better  results.  No  contention  is  made  that  the  oil 
is  not  there.  In  1905  the  output  of  the  districts 
of  Amotope  and  Tumbez  was  placed  at  12,000,000 
gallons.  The  supply  which  is  now  obtained  is  utilized 
as  fuel  on  the  railways  and  in  many  of  the  smelters. 
The  value  of  the  annual  production  is  approximately 
^750,000. 

Government  data  regarding  mining  often  are  tinc- 
tured with  the  enthusiasm  of  the  private  prospector, 
yet  for  guidance  the  distribution  of  the  minerals  as 
they  are  given  in  official  publications  may  be  quoted. 
I have  not  undertaken  to  present  the  complete  statis- 
tics of  production,  not  only  because  they  are  confus- 
ing and  unsatisfactory,  but  also  because  local  and 
temporary  conditions  destroyed  their  value  as  an 


132 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


index  of  the  normal  outputd  An  example  of  this 
was  afforded  by  the  practical  suspension  of  silver 
and  copper  mining  in  the  Cerro  de  Pasco  properties 
of  the  American  syndicate  until  the  new  railroad 
could  be  completed  and  the  smelters  built  and  put 
in  operation.  But  for  the  prospector  and  the  capi- 
talist the  preliminary  information  that  is  desired  may 
be  accepted  in  the  form  adopted  by  the  government, 
that  is,  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  minerals  : 

Gold  — Paucartambo,  La  Mar,  Union,  Angaraes, 
Cajamarca,  Otuzco^  Luya,  Huamachuco,  Arequipa, 
Aymaraes,  Huamalies,  Carabaya,  Sandia,  Tayacaja, 
Ica,  Huanuco. 

Gold  Washings — Maranon,  Inambarl,  and  nearly  all 
the  rivers  that  flow  from  the  eastern  side  of  the  Andes. 

Silver  — Hualgayoc,  Recuay,  Yauli,  Huancavelica, 
Pallasca,  Pataz,  Cailloma,  Castrovirreyna,  Cerro  de 
Pasco. 

Copper — Huaylas,  Huaraz,  Camana,  Yauli,  Cerro 
de  Pasco,  Ica. 


1 The  mineral  output  for  a recent  year  when  there  was  little  activity 
was  placed  at  the  following  figures: 


Kilograms 

Value  in 
pounds  sterling 

Gold 

0 

00 

145,205 

Silver 

170,804 

580,000 

Copper 

9,496,583 

477,000 

Lead,  chiefly  in  argentiferous  minerals 

1,302,365 

S.J+i 

The  production  of  borax  was  2,466  tons  } crude  petroleum,  25,440 
tons,  and  its  by-products  11,639  tons. 


THE  REGIONS  AND  RESOURCES  133 


Mercury-Cinnabar  — Huancavelica,  Chonta,  Dos 
de  Mayo,  Puno. 

Iron  — Piura,  Larez,  Calca,  Huaraz. 

Sulphur  — Tumbez,  Paita,  Chancay,  Huaraz, 
Huarochiri,  Cangallo,  Arequipa,  Camana,  Moquegua, 
Tarata. 

Coal — Huamalles,  Dos  de  Mayo,  Yauyos,  Hua- 
rochiri, Canta,  Tarma,  Huaylas,  Cerro  de  Pasco, 
Caylloma,  Puno,  Recuay. 

Petroleum  — Tumbez,  Lambayeque,  Piura,  Puno. 

Lead — Yauli,  Huarochiri,  Pallasca,  Huari,  Chilete 
(Ancachs). 

The  Peruvian  mining-code  and  the  corps  of  engineers 
which  is  maintained  under  it  are  of  very  great  value. 
The  annual  tax  on  pertenencias,  or  mine  claims,  is  15 
soles  (^7.50),  but  in  the  administration  of  the  law 
frequent  complaint  is  made  of  the  encouragement 
given  to  claim-jumpers.  Unlike  most  other  countries 
of  South  America,  Peru  lays  no  export  tax  on  minerals 
except  gold.  The  future  of  the  mining  industry  de- 
pends so  largely  on  cheapening  and  increasing  the 
facilities  of  transportation,  that  it  will  be  better  under- 
stood in  connection  with  the  explanation  of  the 
Peruvian  railway  system  and  the  plans  of  the  govern- 
ment for  further  railroad  development. 

Live-stock  or  grazing  may  be  said  to  be  one  of  the 
industries  of  the  Sierra,  but  in  relation  to  the  foreign 
commerce  of  the  country  it  does  not  promise  to  be  an 
appreciable  source  of  national  gain.  Sheep-raising  — 
alpacas,  vicunas  — Is  of  the  high  plains.  With  the 
increase  in  the  population  at  these  altitudes  through 
mining  settlements,  the  flocks  are  not  likely  to  grow  ex- 
tensively. The  vicuna,  not  being  domesticated,  is  more 


134 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


apt  to  recede  before  the  advance  of  civilization.  Such 
growth  as  the  live-stock  industry  may  have  in  the  Cor- 
dillera region  may  be  looked  upon  chiefly  as  a means  of 
supplying  local  consumption.  The  exports  of  hides  and 
wool,  while  not  necessarily  stationary,  do  not  indicate 
a heavy  increase.  The  exports  of  hides  are  ^750,000 
per  annum,  and  of  wools,  chiefly  alpacas,  $2,000,000. 

The  world  does  not  yet  fully  grasp  the  possibilities 
and  limitations  of  the  Amazon  rubber  production,  but 
the  Peruvian  government  has  a proper  conception  of 
it  and  has  enacted  legislation  both  to  secure  the  de- 
velopment of  the  gum  forests  and  to  preserve  them 
from  heedless  destruction.  The  rubber  region  within 
Peruvian  territory  has  its  main  extension  in  the  De- 
partment of  Loreto  and  in  the  provinces  of  that 
interior  country,  but  the  area  reaches  almost  to  Cuzco 
and  Lake  Titicaca.  All  of  it  is  within  the  Montana, 
or  forest  region.  In  the  Loreto  district  the  popula- 
tion does  not  exceed  100,000  inhabitants,  if  it  reaches 
that  number.  The  productive  forests  lie  along  the 
banks  of  the  rivers.  The  crude  rubber  that  is  of  the 
best  quality  is  known  as  jei^e.  The  coarser  article  is 
called  caucho.  The  jebe  is  obtained  from  the  incisions 
made  in  the  tree,  while  the  caucho  is  the  sap  that  is 
had  from  cutting  down  the  tree  which  produces  it  and 
then  extracting  the  milk.  It  is  claimed  also  that  the 
rubber  tree  can  be  sown  and  cultivated,  but  for  many 
years,  or  until  the  supply  grows  scarcer,  this  effort  is 
not  likely  to  be  made. 

It  is  the  aim  of  the  authorities  to  prevent  wanton 
waste  and  to  preserve  the  trees.  These  are  not  al- 
lowed to  be  cut  down.  Two  forms  of  contract  are 
adopted.  Under  the  first  form  the  government  leases 


THE  REGIONS  AND  RESOURCES  135 


to  the  grantees  a certain  number  of  acres  for  the  term 
of  ten  years  on  condition  of  receiving  a royalty  ap- 
proximately of  I cent  per  pound  in  addition  to  the 
export  duty.  Under  the  second  form  it  leases  the 
rubber  walks  {estradas)  of  groups  of  150  trees  at  an 
annual  rate  of  about  10  cents  plus  another  10  cents 
for  each  2^  acres  (i  hectare)  on  which  they  are  situated, 
A decree  was  issued  in  1900,  in  pursuance  of  the  law 
passed  two  years  previously,  fixing  the  manner  in 
which  the  estradas^  or  rubber  groves,  could  be  located. 
Land  in  the  forest  region  can  be  bought  outright,  can 
be  located  under  rental,  or  acquired  under  contract  of 
colonization. 

Iquitos  is  the  centre  of  the  rubber  trade  for  Peru, 
and  substantially  all  the  product  now  goes  out  from  it 
to  the  Atlantic  coast  under  the  name  of  Para  rubber ; 
but  with  the  completion  of  the  central  highway  or 
transcontinental  railway  much  of  the  product  unques- 
tionably will  come  to  the  Pacific  coast  and  pass  through 
the  Panama  Canal.  In  1858  Iquitos  v/as  founded  by 
the  Peruvian  government  as  a strategic  outpost.  In 
1885,  the  year  in  which  the  rubber  exploitation  began, 
it  was  an  obscure  settlement.  In  1905  its  population 
was  20,000,  and  it  was  agitating  municipal  sanitation, 
electric  lighting,  and  inviting  bids  for  sewers.  It  is 
the  third  port  of  Peru  in  point  of  its  foreign  com- 
merce, which  amounts  to  ^3,575,000  to  14,000,000. 
The  exports  of  rubber  from  Peru  for  the  year  1904 
were  |2, 142,000,  and  they  passed  almost  entirely 
through  Iquitos.  Since  a contraband  commerce  is 
carried  on  in  order  to  escape  the  export  tax,  the  full 
production  in  a stated  year  is  not  obtainable.  The 
quantity  exported  ranges  from  1,200  to  1,500  tons 


136 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


each  year.  The  exports  are  divided  about  equally 
between  Havre  and  Liverpool. 

When  Bolivia  settled  her  controversy  with  Brazil 
over  the  Acre  territory,  she  transferred  a boundary 
dispute  with  Peru.  The  latter  country  and  Brazil, 
after  some  threatening  passages  of  diplomatic  arms, 
agreed  on  a modus  vivendi,  and  that  the  extent  of  rubber 
territory  belonging  to  each  Republic  should  be  fixed 
by  arbitration.  This  dispute  did  not  relate  so  much 
to  the  territory  contiguous  to  Iquitos  as  to  the  Yavari 
River  frontier.  This  basin  has  an  annual  known  pro- 
duction of  1,500  tons  and  a large  contraband  output. 
The  southern  districts  as  yet  are  in  the  initial  stages 
of  exploitation.  The  Inambari  River  basin,  including 
the  Marcapata  valley,  is  an  almost  virgin  field. 

The  Peruvian  government,  having  adopted  effective 
measures  for  the  protection  of  the  rubber  forests  from 
prodigal  destruction,  also  has  sought  to  aid  the  various 
private  enterprises  by  supervising  the  supply  of  labor. 
This  is  a much  more  difficult  problem.  The  native 
Indians  and  the  cholos  are  hardly  numerous  enough  to 
meet  the  needs  of  the  industry  in  its  present  state,  and 
both  persuasion  and  compulsion  are  exerted  in  order 
to  force  them  to  work.  Its  ultimate  solution  and  the 
full  exploitation  of  the  rubber  wealth  of  Peru  must  rest 
on  the  colonization  of  the  trans-Andine  region,  and  a 
gradual  transformation  into  tropical  agriculture  of  the 
districts  which  are  not  rendered  unfit  for  habitation 
and  cultivation  by  the  annual  high-water  overflows  of 
the  Amazon’s  affluents.  But  for  this  river  region,  as 
for  the  other  regions  of  Peru,  there  is  no  artificial  aid 
which  can  compare  with  the  Panama  Canal. 


CHAPTER  IX 


WATERWAYS  AND  RAILWAYS 

Importance  of  River  System  — Existing  Lines  of  Railroads  — 
Pan-American  Links  — Lease  of  State  Roads  to  Peruvian 
Corporation  of  London  — Unfulfilled  Stipulations  — Law  for 
Guaranty  of  Capital  Invested  in  New  Enterprises  — Routes 
from  Amazon  to  the  Pacific  — National  Policy  for  their 
Construction  — Central  Highway^  Callao  to  Iquitos  — The 
Pichis  — Railroad  and  Navigation  — Surveys  in  Northern 
Peru  — Comparative  Distances  — Experiences  with  First 
Projects  — Future  Building  Contemporaneous  with  Panama 
Canal. 

Neither  the  economic  future  of  Peru  nor  the 
prospect  of  realizing  the  national  aspirations 
can  be  understood  without  turning  to  the  map  and 
studying  the  waterways  and  the  railways.  The 
Maranon,  having  its  source  in  Lake  Lauricocha 
within  the  inner  slope  of  the  Central  Cordilleras,  flows 
in  a northwesterly  direction  till  about  south  latitude 
40°,  when  it  turns  abruptly  northeast.  The  Ucayali, 
receiving  its  initial  waters  farther  south  and  east  of  the 
eastern  range  of  the  great  Cordilleras,  flows  north  un- 
til it  joins  the  Maranon  below  Iquitos  and  the  two 
form  the  mighty  Amazon.  Between  them  flows  the 
Huallaga,  smaller  than  either,  yet  a great  river.  It 
empties  into  the  Maranon.  The  general  parallelism 
of  the  Maranon,  the  Huallaga,  and  the  Ucayali  afford 
alternative  routes  from  the  Amazon  basin  to  the 


138 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


Pacific  coast.  The  Huallaga  was  on  the  transconti- 
nental trail  of  the  early  Spaniards,  who  crossed  the 
mountains  from  Pacasmayo  to  Cajamarca  and  then 
continued  to  Yurimaguas  on  its  banks. 

The  existing  railroad  lines  of  Peru  extend  from  the 
coast  toward  the  Andes,  the  only  practicable  system 
in  the  first  stages  of  national  development.  The 
second  stage  is  to  secure  a spine  for  these  disjointed 
ribs  by  means  of  a main  trunk  line  north  and  south  — 
the  Intercontinental  or  Pan-American  idea  — and  to 
fill  in  the  lacking  links  in  rail  and  water  transport 
from  the  Amazon  or  trans-Andine  region  to  the 
Pacific.  The  intercontinental  project  contemplates 
rail  connection  to  the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca,  so  that 
ultimately  there  will  be  through  communication  with 
Buenos  Ayres,  and  also  the  gradual  and  necessarily 
slower  plan  of  joining  railroad  and  water  links  north 
to  the  boundary  of  Ecuador.  All  of  this  will  make 
for  mineral  development. 

The  rubber  industry  of  the  Iquitos  and  tributary 
territory  is  to  Peru  what  the  fur  trade  of  Oregon  was 
to  the  United  States  in  the  period  between  1830  and 
1850.  The  populating  of  the  vast  inlying  country, 
the  trans-Andine  slopes  and  the  river  basins,  means  to 
Peru  what  the  settlement  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region  extending  to  the  Pacific  meant  to  the  people  of 
the  United  States.  If  the  hardy  pioneer  class  is  lack- 
ing, and  it  is,  the  Peruvian  national  instinct  is  not 
wanting.  Enlightened  public  men  are  seeking  to  find 
expression  for  it.  Immigration,  colonization,  are  the 
only  means.  Access,  transportation  facilities,  ways  of 
getting  in  and  out,  must  precede  colonization.  There- 
fore the  railway  policy.  But  imperative  reasons  of 


WATERWAYS  AND  RAILWAYS  139 


state  polity  require  that  the  development  shall  con- 
verge from  the  Amazon  toward  the  Pacific  instead 
of  from  the  Continental  Divide  toward  the  Atlantic. 
Hence  the  inestimable  value  of  the  Panama  Canal  as 
an  incentive,  a stimulating  cause,  an  influencing  factor 
in  the  national  advancement.  It  fixes  the  Pacific  coast 
as  the  unchanging  goal  toward  which  all  Peruvian 
industrial  growth  must  tend. 

It  is  desirable  to  have  an  intelligent  grasp  of  the 
present  railway  systems  of  Peru,  their  management, 
and  their  bases  of  extension.  The  total  length  is 
about  1,400  miles.  Most  of  them  are  of  the  standard 
gauge  of  4 feet  inches,  and  with  few  exceptions  they 
are  the  property  of  the  State.  However,  substantially 
all  of  them  are  operated  by  the  Peruvian  Corporation 
of  London  under  the  sixty-five  years’  lease  executed 
by  the  government  in  1891,  when  the  English  bond- 
holders assumed  the  foreign  debt  and  took  over  the 
railways  in  compensation.  This  was  the  substance  of 
the  contract  that  relieved  Peru  from  a crushing  burden, 
though  it  also  entailed  heavy  responsibilities  which 
were  viewed  with  misgivings  that  afterwards  were 
justified.  The  contract  included  huge  land  grants,  a 
practical  monopoly  of  the  guano  deposits  for  a long 
period,  exclusive  rights  of  navigation  on  Lake  Titicaca, 
and  freedom  from  burdensome  taxation. 

Some  of  the  provisions  in  this  agreement  were  very 
evil  for  Peru,  and  some  were  bad  for  the  bondholders. 
Always  it  will  be  a subject  of  controversy  whether  the 
government  or  the  Peruvian  Corporation  has  been 
most  at  fault  in  the  non-fulfilment  of  the  conditions. 
The  disinterested  observer  must  admit  that  both  have 
been  to  blame.  Both  entered  on  obligations  which 


140 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


they  could  not  meet,  — the  Peruvian  government  to 
pay  annually  ^80,000,  or  approximately  ^400,000,  to 
the  corporation ; and  the  corporation  to  make  impor- 
tant extensions  of  the  railways,  particularly  toward  the 
Amazon,  and  to  plant  colonies.  For  the  latter  purpose 
it  received  a grant  of  1,100,000  hectares^  2,750,000 
acres  of  land,  in  the  fertile  Chanchamayo  valley. 

The  corporation  taunted  the  government  that  but 
for  its  lease  of  the  railways  they  would  have  been 
abandoned  and  have  become  nothing  more  than  trails 
over  the  mountains.  On  its  part  the  company  was 
as  monumental  an  exhibition  of  English  incompetence 
and  mismanagement  as  can  be  found  in  foreign  lands, 
where  there  are  so  many  monuments  of  incompetence 
made  possible  by  confiding  English  investors  and  dull- 
witted  London  directors.  When  the  disagreements 
with  the  government  got  acute,  its  officers  exerted 
themselves  principally  to  blacken  Peruvian  credit  in 
London  and  to  keep  other  capital  out.  Their  success 
for  several  years  was  satisfying  to  the  resentful  senti- 
ment of  the  managers  and  stockholders,  if  not  profitable 
to  their  pocketbooks. 

The  Peruvian  Corporation,  not  on  account  of  pro- 
gressiveness of  its  own,  but  through  the  enterprise 
of  the  American  capitalists  who  acquired  the  Cerro 
de  Pasco  mines  and  built  the  railroad  to  connect  with 
the  line  to  the  coast,  and  whose  industries  are  furnish- 
ing it  with  traffic,  began  to  earn  money.  Nominally 
it  represents  a capital  of  $100,000,000.  While  this 
capital  is  inflated,  in  the  new  and  improving  conditions 
of  Peru  there  is  a prospect  for  earning  a reasonable 
return  on  the  actual  value  of  the  leased  railways.  The 
corporation  and  the  government  have  reconciled  some 


WATERWAYS  AND  RAILWAYS  141 


of  their  differences,  and  the  remaining  ones  may  be 
compromised  and  the  cooperation  which  is  so  essential 
be  secured. 

I have  noted  that  the  physical  feature  of  the 
Peruvian  railway  lines  is  their  general  direction  from 
the  coast  straight  to  the  Andes,  and  that  the  policy  of 
the  government  is  to  supply  them  with  a backbone  by 
filling  in  links  along  the  intercontinental  location  and 
to  extend  the  transcontinental  outshoots  so  as  to  secure 
the  through  rail  and  water  outlet  from  the  Amazon 
to  the  Pacific.  Definite  measures  of  legislation  have 
been  adopted  in  furtherance  of  these  plans.  The  law 
passed  in  1904  with  the  purpose  of  encouraging  foreign 
capital,  set  aside  the  proceeds  of  the  tobacco  tax  to  the 
amount  of  1 1,000,000  annually  after  1905  as  a guaranty 
for  capital  invested  in  railway  building.  The  returns 
do  not  indicate  that  the  income  from  tobacco  will 
reach  this  amount  for  some  years,  yet  the  value  of 
the  legislation  in  establishing  a fixed  railway  fund  is 
very  great. 

The  government  took  energetic  measures,  and  the 
extension  of  the  existing  line  from  Oroya  to  Huancayo 
was  assured,  as  also  the  one  from  Sicuani  to  Cuzco. 
That  leaves  between  300  and  400  miles  to  be  built 
across  savagely  broken  country  from  Huancayo  to 
Cuzco,  in  which  the  engineering  difficulties  are  serious. 
But  while  it  is  ultimate  rather  than  immediate,  the 
closing  up  of  this  section  is  inevitable,  and  though  the 
local  traffic  will  not  pay  the  government  can  afford  to 
aid  the  enterprise  just  as  the  United  States  govern- 
ment helped  the  transcontinental  lines  by  subsidies 
and  bonds.  The  impetus  given  to  railway  building 
in  Bolivia  which  insures  through  connection  from 


142 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


Lake  Titicaca  to  the  border  of  Argentina  makes  it 
imperative  that  Peru,  for  strategic  reasons  of  the  great- 
est significance,  shall  reach  Titicaca  in  time  to  become 
linked  with  the  general  system. 

The  extension  of  the  line  from  Oroya  south  to 
Huancayo,  the  first  dozen  miles  of  which  was  coinci- 
dent with  the  other  railway  construction,  insures  the 
progress  of  a very  rich  section.  Well-populated  val- 
leys rich  in  agricultural  products  are  traversed,  while 
mineral  veins,  especially  copper  and  coal,  are  tapped. 
The  famous  quicksilver  mines  of  Huancavelica  are  in 
this  zone.  The  region  as  a whole,  from  the  variety 
of  its  climate,  offers  encouraging  prospects  for  immi- 
gration. The  valley  of  Jauja  is  one  of  the  most 
inviting  fields  for  irrigation  that  is  to  be  found  within 
the  limits  of  Peru. 

Routes  from  the  Amazon  to  the  Pacific  are  many. 
The  one  which  promises  the  earliest  realization  is  that 
known  as  the  Pichis,  or  the  central  highway.  When 
the  contract  was  made  with  the  Peruvian  Corporation, 
this  was  one  of  the  proposed  extensions  in  which  the 
greatest  faith  was  felt,  and  the  enormous  land  grant 
was  chiefly  to  insure  its  construction.  Disappoint- 
ment at  the  failure  to  carry  forward  this  line  was  one 
of  the  causes  of  the  resentment  of  the  government 
toward  the  corporation  and  of  the  friction  that  fol- 
lowed. The  surveys  and  explorations  of  Arana, 
Werthemann,  Tucker,  Wolfe,  Barandiaran,  Father 
Sala,  Carlos  Perez,  and  others,  showed  the  feasibility  of 
navigation  from  Iquitos  to  the  Pichis,  a total  distance 
of  900  to  1,000  miles  according  to  the  river  courses 
followed.  Navigation  was  established.  Then  came 
the  greater  problem  of  climbing  the  clinging  eyebrow 


View  ok  Oroya,  the  Inter- Andine  Crossroads 


WATERWAYS  AND  RAILWAYS  143 


of  the  Eastern  Cordilleras  through  untried  passes 
and  scaling  mountain  walls  to  the  puna.,  or  table- 
land. 

Plans  formed  during  the  term  of  President  Prado 
in  1879  were  inaugurated  by  President  Caceres,  and 
under  the  administration  of  General  Pierola  in  1896 
the  government  undertook  to  open  communication 
from  the  terminus  of  the  present  road  at  Oroya  to 
the  Pichis.  The  central  highway  was  laid  out  and 
made  passable  for  man  and  beast.  “ The  mule  path 
grows  to  a trodden  road  ” — but  not  in  the  Andes. 
For  much  of  the  distance  the  highway  meant  only 
a trail,  yet  a way  was  opened  chiefly  through  the 
genius  of  the  Peruvian  engineer,  Joaquin  Capelo.  It 
was  enormously  expensive,  especially  since,  on  account 
of  the  controversies  with  the  Peruvian  Corporation, 
the  government  made  a detour  to  avoid  crossing  the 
lands  granted  to  that  company,  and  by  pushing  straight 
up  the  steepest  mountain-sides  ignored  the  engineering 
basis  of  road-making. 

The  history  of  the  central  highway  has  been  written 
by  Senor  Capelo  and  other  Peruvians.  It  is  a brilliant 
chapter  in  hardy  enterprise.  Like  so  many  State  pro- 
jects, the  full  benefits  were  not  reaped  immediately,  and 
much  costly  engineering  work  was  allowed  to  fall  into 
disuse.  But  in  spite  of  misuse  and  disuse  the  achieve- 
ment stands  out  that  the  Pichis  road  was  opened  and 
communication  with  the  Amazon  established.  This 
helped  to  preserve  ahd  strengthen  the  national  spirit 
when  the  territorial  integrity  was  threatened  by  the 
abortive  movements  for  the  separation  of  Iquitos  and 
the  Department  of  Loreto. 

The  methods  of  locomotion  employed  and  the  means 


144 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


of  following  the  central  highway  from  Lima  to  Iquitos 
are  given  below: 

ITINERARY  FROM  LIMA  TO  IQUITOS 


Method 
of  travel 

Place  of  transit 

Days 

Total  dis- 
tance from 
Lima  in 
kilometres 

By  railroad  . 

Lima  to  Oroya 

1 

206 

“ horse  . . 

Oroya  to  Tarma 

1 

236 

“ mule  . . 

Tarma  to  Huacapistana 

I 

280 

« « 

Huacapistana  to  La  Merced  . . . 

1 

314 

tt  tt 

La  Merced  to  Vista  Alegre  .... 

1 

348 

U <t 

Vista  Alegre  to  Tambo  Enenas  . . 

1 

390 

((  <t 

Enenas  to  Tambo  kilometre  93  . . 

1 

432 

« u 

Tambo  kilometre  93  to  Azupizu  . . 

1 

482 

it  4i 

Azupizu  to  Puerto  Yessup  .... 

1 

524 

“ canoe  . . 

Puerto  Yessup  to  Puerto  Bermudez  . 

1 

544 

“ steamer  . 

Puerto  Bermudez  to  Iquitos  .... 

7 

1,500 

Total 

17 

2,044 

In  English  terms  the  distance  is  1,265  n^il^s.  The 
return  journey  requires  five  days  more,  as  it  is  upstream 
from  Iquitos  to  Port  Bermudez.  Variations  of  this 
route  are  possible.  With  a through  railway  from  Lima 
to  Port  Bermudez,  Victoria,  or  other  navigable  point, 
and  the  improved  navigation  which  will  follow,  the 
time  will  be  ten  days.  A telegraph  line  extends  from 
Lima  to  Bermudez,  and  an  irregular  postal  service  is 
carried  on  with  Iquitos.  Under  present  conditions 
the  traveller  who  makes  the  entire  trip  is  rare,  and 
there  is  no  through  traffic.  Officials  who  may  be  ordered 
from  Lima  to  the  Department  of  Loreto  prefer  to 
make  the  trip  by  steamer  from  Callao  to  Panama, 
1,570  miles,  by  rail  and  steamer  to  New  York,  2,030 


WATERWAYS  AND  RAILWAYS  145 


miles,  by  steamer  from  New  York  to  Para  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Amazon,  3,000  miles,  and  up  the  Ama- 
zon, 2,300  miles,  to  Iquitos.  A journey  of  8,900  miles 
in  order  to  cover  a distance  of  less  than  1,300  miles 
is  the  most  graphic  illustration  that  can  be  given  of 
the  compelling  force  of  through  rail  and  water  com- 
munication on  the  part  of  Peru  with  its  Amazonian 
territory.  It  also  is  an  example  of  the  prospective 
advantage  of  traffic  by  the  Panama  Canal  route,  since 
the  productive  and  undeveloped  region  of  the  Ucayali 
basin  rivers  is  nearer  to  the  Pacific  than  to  the  sources 
of  the  Amazon. 

The  route  traversed  by  the  central  highway  with 
some  modifications  is  feasible  for  a railway.  The  gov- 
ernment recognized  this,  and  under  the  authority  con- 
ferred by  the  law  of  1904  put  surveyors  in  the  field  to 
determine  which  is  the  most  practicable  and  cheapest 
in  the  engineering  sense  of  several  alternative  routes. 
The  reasonable  belief  is  that  the  distance  to  be  cov- 
ered need  not  exceed  250  miles,  at  a maximum  cost  of 
$10,000,000.  The  calculation  made  by  Monsieur  A. 
Plane,  the  representative  of  French  commercial  socie- 
ties who  studied  the  region  with  a view  to  determining 
the  prospective  capacity  of  the  rubber  production,  was 
$13,000,000.'  But  this  was  a general  estimate  and  not 
an  engineering  reconnaissance.  While  it  would  not  pay 
at  once  as  a commercial  proposition,  he  believed  that 
the  government  would  be  justified  in  undertaking  it. 
Some  of  the  estimates  have  been  as  low  as  $7,500,000. 
Unquestionably  the  Peruvian  government  can  afford, 
though  not  in  a short  period,  to  spend  $10,000,000 
or  $11,000,000  to  secure  this  connection  to  the  forest 

^ Le  Perou,  par  Auguste  Plane,  Paris,  1903. 

10 


146  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


regions  and  the  development  of  the  rubber  and  other 
resources  which  lie  there.  The  rich  Chanchamayo 
valley  is  within  the  zone  of  productive  tropical  agri- 
culture and  offers  an  incentive  to  colonization.  The 
settlement  of  the  boundary  dispute  with  Brazil  regard- 
ing the  frontier  territory  is  a further  motive  for  secur- 
ing transportation  facilities  for  that  portion  of  the 
region  which  may  be  conceded  to  Peru,  and  for  im- 
proving the  unsatisfactory  navigation  of  the  Ucayali 
and  its  tributaries. 

When  the  government  took  measures  for  bringing 
the  Pichis  line  within  the  sphere  of  early  realization, 
representatives  of  the  northern  Departments  sought  to 
secure  similar  advantages  for  their  localities  which  had 
been  reconnoitred  by  Von  Hassel  and  other  explorers. 
Various  surveys  were  ordered,  and  concessions  in  force 
were  amplified. 

A project  related  to  the  central  highway  Is  that 
which  contemplates  prolonging  the  short  spur  of  rail- 
way which  runs  from  Chimbote  so  that  It  will  reach 
Recuay,  137  miles  from  the  coast,  and  then  some  point 
on  the  Cerro  de  Pasco  line.  The  mineral  deposits 
which  exist  along  this  proposed  route  include  anthra- 
cite coal,  and  are  exceedingly  rich,  but  heretofore  they 
have  not  been  alluring  enough  to  draw  the  full  amount 
of  the  capital  needed  for  the  railroad  construction. 
When  the  central  highway  is  converted  into  a rail- 
road, the  connection  of  Cerro  de  Pasco  with  Recuay 
will  be  more  easily  secured,  and  the  Amazon  region 
and  the  Ucayali  basin  may  obtain  an  outlet  to  the 
seaboard  through  Chimbote  as  well  as  through  Callao. 
Another  route  which  has  received  official  sanction 
is  from  Cerro  de  Pasco  to  Huanuco  and  beyond. 


WATERWAYS  AND  RAILWAYS  147 


following  the  course  of  the  river  Huallaga  along  the 
Pan-American  location. 

An  American  company,  the  Pacific,  which  had  val- 
uable mining  and  railway  concessions  in  the  North, 
and  which  among  alternative  routes  had  made  engi- 
neering reconnaissances  for  a line  from  Pacasmayo 
through  to  the  affluents  of  the  Amazon,  secured  addi- 
tional exclusive  privileges  of  navigation  and  exploita- 
tion of  the  rivers.^  However,  the  selection  of  Paita 
as  the  seaport  is  more  probable,  and  the  government 
authorized  a liberal  law  for  this  location,  though  the 
terms  did  not  carry  a financial  guaranty.  The  project 
of  a railway  from  Paita  to  the  Falls,  or  Pongo  of 
Manserriche,  has  captivated  the  imagination  of  the 
explorers  and  engineers  who  have  reconnoitred  this 
route  to  the  Amazon,  and  who  have  foreseen  the  cer- 
tainty of  an  outlet  to  the  Pacific  as  one  result  of  the 
Panama  Canal.  Large  vessels  navigate  the  Maranon 
425  miles  above  Iquitos. 

The  railroad  necessary  to  connect  the  Pongo  de 
Manserriche  or  Borja  with  Piura  and  Paita  would  be 
less  than  400  miles.  The  extension  of  cotton  culti- 
vation in  Piura  might  prove  of  more  utility  in  securing 
the  railroad  than  the  iron  ore  deposits,  the  commercial 
value  of  which  capitalists  may  distrust.  An  advantage 
of  this  route  is  that  the  engineering  difficulties  are  not 
serious,  and  the  highest  pass  to  be  surmounted  is  not 
more  than  7,200  feet.  By  one  survey  the  Maranon 


^ Under  the  terms  of  the  concession  the  Pacific  Company  was  given 
the  right  to  construct  branch  lines  north  to  Ecuador  and  south  to  latitude 
10°,  along  with  trading  and  water  rights  on  the  Amazon  and  its  tribu- 
taries. Construction  of  the  railroad  lines  was  to  begin  in  1907  and  to 
be  completed  within  ten  years. 


148  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


is  310  miles  from  Paita,  though  this  is  at  a point 
above  the  Falls  of  Manserriche,  the  power  from  which 
it  is  proposed  to  utilize  for  electric  traction.  The 
railroad  now  covers  the  distance  from  Paita  to  Piura, 
and  leaves  the  following  distances  along  the  proposed 


location : 

Miles 

Piura  to  Vinces 30.0 

Vinces  to  Chalaco 30.0 

Chalaco  to  Cumbicus 19.5 

Cumbicus  to  Huancabamba 27.0 

Huancabamba  to  Tabaconas 30.0 

Tabaconas  to  Tambo-botija 25.5 

Tatnbo-botija  to  Perico 34.0 

Perico  to  Jaen 42.0 

Jaen  to  Bellanista 12.0 

Total 250.0 


Whenever  this  rail  connection  from  Paita  to  the 
navigable  waters  of  the  Maranon  shall  be  made, 
Iquitos  will  be  at  least  1,000  miles  nearer  to  New 
York  by  way  of  the  Pacific  and  the  Panama  Canal 
than  by  the  Amazon  and  the  Atlantic. 

Other  tentative  locations  are  one  from  the  port  of 
Eten  through  Jaen  to  Bellanista  on  the  Maranon, 
about  240  miles,  and  from  Salaverry  via  Cajamarca 
to  Balzas  on  the  Maranon,  200  miles.  From  through 
Suchiman  to  the  Huallaga  River  are  several  trails  which 
make  the  distance  about  185  miles.  From  Pacasmayo 
several  engineering  reconnaissances  have  been  made. 
One  of  these  through  Cajamarca  reaches  the  Maranon 
at  Balzas  over  a route  which  is  asserted  to  be  only 
138  miles  in  length.  Other  routes  vary  from  140  to 
150  miles.  But  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  Balzas  is 
farther  than  Bellanista  above  the  Falls  of  Manserriche, 
that  is  to  say,  above  the  waters  of  the  Maranon 
open  to  steam  navigation. 


WATERWAYS  AND  RAILWAYS  149 


It  may  be  that  the  waiting  for  the  full  fruition  of 
the  Peruvian  waterway  and  railway  projects  will  be  a 
long  one.  The  public  men  who  are  guiding  the  pol- 
icy of  the  nation  in  the  present  progressive  channels 
will  have  their  spells  of  dejection,  and  the  checks,  and 
discouragements  will  cause  periods  of  doubt.  That  is 
the  history  of  most  countries  in  their  measures  for 
material  development,  but  it  more  especially  is  the  his- 
tory of  Spanish-American  republics.  The  Southern 
Railway,  which  was  to  cross  the  volcanic  Cordilleras 
and  reach  Lake  Titicaca,  was  long  a dream.  Then 
the  enterprise  took  form,  was  abandoned,  reinaugu- 
rated, halted,  and  finally  the  government  pushed  a 
line  of  rails  through  the  desert  to  the  town  of  Are- 
quipa.  After  Arequipa  was  reached  came  the  longer 
and  more  formidable  extension  to  Titicaca.  But  in 
time  the  work  was  done. 

The  Central  Railway,  the  Oroya,  was  a huger  task. 
Henry  Meiggs  carried  it  forward,  with  reckless  confi- 
dence and  superb  courage,  half-way  up  the  gigantic 
Cordilleras,  and  died.  Destructive  war  came.  Peru 
was  prostrate  amid  industrial  ruins  and  political  chaos, 
yet  the  forces  of  recuperation  were  not  dead.  After 
years  they  were  vitalized.  The  Oroya  line  was  pushed 
through  to  the  mining-region  for  which  it  was  meant 
to  be  the  outlet,  and  there  only  remains  the  exten- 
sion, in  the  face  of  lesser  engineering  and  commer- 
cial obstacles,  to  the  navigable  waters  which  reach  the 
Amazon.  The  Southern  and  the  Oroya  roads  were 
contracted  for  in  the  times  of  riotous  national  wealth, 
the  era  of  the  guanos  and  the  nitrates,  when  the  say- 
ing “As  rich  as  a Peruvian  ” was  the  common  way  of 
describing  the  opulence  of  the  country  and  its  favored 


150  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


classes.  They  were  built  extravagantly,  as  national 
luxuries. 

Future  railways  can  have  none  of  this  profuseness. 
They  can  be  had  only  by  husbanding  the  revenues ; 
by  strict  retrenchment,  even  parsimony ; by  outrun- 
ning at  hardly  more  than  a hare’s  pace  the  industrial 
and  commercial  development  of  the  country  in  order 
that  greater  growth  may  follow.  But  they  can  be 
built  for  sound  economic  conditions,  and  patriotic 
reasons  are  their  basis.  If  not  simultaneous,  their 
construction  at  least  may  be  contemporaneous  with 
the  Panama  Canal. 


CHAPTER  X 


THE  PEOPLE  AND  THEIR  INCREASE 

Density  of  Population  in  Time  of  the  Incas — Three  Million  In- 
habitants Now  Probable  — Census  of  i8j6  — Interior  Country 
Not  Sparsely  Populated  — Aboriginal  Indian  Race  and  Mixed 
Blood  — Fascinating  History  of  the  ^uichuas  — Tribal  Cus- 
toms — Superstition  — Negroes  and  Chinese  Coolies  — Immi- 
gration Movements  of  the  Future  — Wages  — European 
Colonization  — Cause  of  Chanchamayo  V alley  Failure  — 
Climatic  and  Other  Conditions  Favorable — An  Enthusiast’s 
Faith. 

IN  the  times  of  the  Incas  the  territory  which  is  now 
Peru  supported  a dense  population.  The  vestiges 
which  remain  of  the  intensive  cultivation  of  the  land 
show  that  it  must  have  sustained  a very  large  number 
of  inhabitants.  This  population  extended  from  the 
Sierra  and  its  sides  to  the  coast,  and  took  little  account 
of  the  forest  region  stretching  to  the  Amazon.  The 
enumeration  made  by  the  Spanish  colonial  officials  in 
1793  has  little  value  as  a basis  of  estimating  the  In- 
crease, because  it  was  not  limited  to  the  present  Peru. 
It  is  interesting  only  as  showing  that  out  of  a total 
of  1,077,000  inhabitants  there  were  618,000  Indians, 
241,000  mestizos,  136,000  Spaniards,  and  82,000  ne- 
groes and  mulattoes.  Another  estimate  made  at  that 
period  was  of  1,250,000  persons. 

It  is  difficult  to  figure  out  that  the  population 
of  Peru  at  the  end  of  1905  exceeded  3,000,000 
to  3,250,000,  though  an  estimate  of  4,000,000  was 


152  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


attributed  to  the  Geographical  Society  of  Lima  a few 
years  ago.  The  last  census  was  taken  in  1876.  It 
gave  a total  of  2,673,000  persons.  The  enumeration 
admittedly  was  deficient,  and  an  open  question  was 
whether  the  semi-civilized  tribes  in  the  trans-Andine 
region  had  been  underestimated  or  overestimated.  In 
subsequent  years  the  Province  of  Tarapaca  was  ceded 
to  Chile,  and  Peru  suffered  not  only  the  losses  caused 
by  the  war  with  that  country,  but  also  from  the  com- 
plete industrial  prostration  which  supervened  and  from 
the  intestine  struggles  of  the  revolutionary  factions. 

Only  within  the  last  decade  a basis  of  normal  growth 
of  population  may  be  said  to  exist,  and,  with  reference 
to  the  natural  increase,  the  high  rate  of  infant  mortal- 
ity both  in  the  cities  and  in  the  Sierra  has  to  be  kept 
in  mind.  A long  period  of  comfortable  existence  and 
of  hygienic  education  must  elapse  before  this  mortality 
will  be  sensibly  diminished.  In  many  communities  the 
birth  rate  and  the  death  rate  are  evenly  balanced, 
while  there  are  districts  in  which  the  grave  claims 
more  than  the  rude  cradle. 

By  the  national  census  of  1876  Lima  had  101,000 
inhabitants.  In  November,  1903,  a municipal  count 
fixed  the  population  at  131,000.  Lima  has  received 
the  cream  of  the  immigration  in  recent  years,  and  has 
drawn  to  itself  all  the  floating  elements.  The  smaller 
coast  cities  have  shown  no  such  growth,  while  in 
the  interior  the  towns  appear  almost  stationary  as  to 
their  inhabitants.  If  the  rate  of  increase  were  30 
per  cent  for  the  whole  country,  as  with  Lima,  and  if 
the  census  of  1876  could  be  accepted  as  a safe  basis 
of  calculation,  the  total  population  to-day  would  be 
approximately  3,500,000.  The  notable  increase  of 


PEOPLE  AND  INCREASE 


153 


Peru’s  foreign  trade  in  recent  years  is  evidence  of 
improved  consumptive  capacity,  due  to  industrial  pros- 
perity, rather  than  of  an  increased  number  of  consum- 
ers. It  came  too  swiftly  to  be  accounted  for  by  the 
growth  in  population,  and  therefore  does  not  support 
the  theory  of  upward  of  3,500,000  inhabitants. 

I have  taken  into  account  the  statement  of  travel- 
lers in  the  interior,  who  have  found  the  people  more 
thickly  distributed  than  they  had  thought.  Two 
young  Americans,  Messrs.  Whitehead  and  Peachy, 
who  in  1902  travelled  through  northern  Peru  to  the 
Amazon,  encountered  a relatively  dense  population. 
The  engineers  who  in  1895  made  the  I Jitercontinen- 
tal  Railway  Survey  from  the  border  of  Ecuador  to 
Cuzco,  calculated  the  number  of  inhabitants  along  the 
route  to  be  482,000,  substantially  in  agreement  with 
the  national  census  and  with  no  signs  of  a marked 
increase.  The  location  was  through  the  Sierra  and 
directly  on  the  line  of  many  of  the  most  populous 
Andine  towns.  Engineers  for  private  companies  who 
made  a reconnaissance  of  a route  along  the  left  bank 
of  the  Maranon,  were  surprised  to  find  every  little 
stretch  of  plain  or  valley  between  the  glaciers  occu- 
pied and  cultivated  by  an  Indian  family,  yet  when 
they  came  to  estimate  the  aggregate  of  the  inhabitants 
the  total  was  not  a large  one.  This  inter-Andine 
population  may  be  numerous  enough  to  justify  the 
belief  that  the  census  of  thirty  years  ago  was  not  wide 
of  the  mark,  but  it  is  impossible  to  find  grounds  for 
the  assumption  of  an  increase  of  30  per  cent  since 
then.  The  population  of  Peru  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Panama  Canal  epoch  reasonably  may  be 
placed  at  3,250,000. 


154 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


In  the  enumeration  of  1876  the  estimate  was  that 
of  the  inhabitants  57  per  cent  were  pure  Indian,  23 
per  cent  mestizos^  and,  except  for  a fraction  of  negroes, 
the  remaining  20  per  cent  was  Caucasian,  chiefly  Span- 
ish. The  aboriginal  proportion  is  now  smaller  than  it 
was  thirty  years  ago,  since  European  immigration  has 
added  to  the  white  population,  and  the  mixed  blood 
also  has  been  augmented. 

There  is  no  more  fascinating  history  than  that  of 
the  Quichuas,  the  aboriginal  population  of  Peru  which 
still  survives.  The  distinctions  are  yet  marked 
between  this  basic  race  and  the  races  which  were 
subjected,  such  as  the  Yuncas,  who  dwelt  in  the 
northern  part  and  along  the  coast  and  whose  language 
is  still  spoken  by  their  descendants.  Some  of  the 
tribes  around  the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca  are  not  of 
pure  Quichua  descent,  being  sprung  from  the  rival 
race  of  the  Aymaras,  while  in  the  forest  region  the 
Chunchos  and  others  of  the  uncivilized  tribes  have 
little  of  the  Quichua  traditions  or  customs  and  speak 
dialects  of  their  own.  But  the  great  mass  of  the 
population  of  Peru  to-day  is  Quichua.  The  Spanish 
and  other  intermixtures  which  have  produced  the 
choloSy  or  half-breeds,  have  had  four  centuries  to  work 
out  the  blood  mingling,  and  the  cholo  in  every  com- 
munity is  very  easily  distinguishable  from  the  pure 
Quichua. 

The  Quichua  is  of  the  soil.  Under  the  Incas  the 
communal  system  of  land  cultivation  prevailed,  and 
the  natives,  even  in  the  loftiest  recesses  of  the  moun- 
tains, were  agriculturists.  They  found  means  to 
irrigate  the  most  barren  spots.  On  the  plains  and 
valleys  they  cultivated  the  land.  The  fondness  for 


1 


Group  of  Peruvian  Cholos 


> rf 


PEOPLE  AND  INCREASE 


155 


the  freedom  of  the  country  still  survives,  and  many 
of  them  prefer  this  life  to  being  grouped  in  villages. 

On  some  of  the  great  haciendas  the  crops  are 
apportioned  on  shares  almost  as  in  the  times  of  the 
Incas.  The  natives  are  born  shepherds,  and  the  pas- 
toral life  suits  them.  In  the  Cordilleras,  wherever 
there  is  a pass  or  a valley,  the  cabins  of  the  Indians 
are  scattered  about  as  thickly  as  the  producing  qualities 
of  the  land  will  permit. 

Much  of  the  work  in  the  mines  is  done  by  the 
cholos  or  mestizos.  These  also  are  the  freighters  who 
handle  the  droves  of  llamas,  burros,  and  mules  that 
bring  the  ore  from  the  mines  and  take  back  the 
supplies.  On  the  coast  the  population  might  be  called 
chiefly  cholo^  for  here  the  intercourse  with  other  races 
has  made  the  conditions  different  from  those  in  the 
Sierra. 

In  the  forest  region  the  tribal  customs  are  observed 
almost  as  before  the  Spaniards  came.  Many  of  the 
tribes  are  still  restricted  to  bows  and  arrows,  and  as 
they  are  hostile  to  the  government  and  accept  its  rule 
unwillingly,  the  authorities  take  pains  to  see  that  they 
are  not  encouraged  in  procuring  fire-arms  and  learning 
the  use  of  modern  weapons.  The  marriage  relation 
is  primitive,  but  the  traditions  are  rigidly  maintained. 
An  Englishman  who  had  spent  some  years  in  the 
basin  of  the  Ucayali  told  me  that  in  one  tribe  polyan- 
dry was  practised.  An  epidemic  of  smallpox  had  left 
many  more  men  than  women. 

The  owner  of  an  hacienda  on  the  edge  of  the  forest 
region  gave  me  an  account  of  the  marriage  customs 
which  had  prevailed  almost  immemorially.  One 
instance  which  had  come  to  his  attention  was  of  a girl 


156 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


of  nine  who  was  married  to  a boy  of  eleven.  When 
the  child-wife  was  eleven  years  old,  she  was  a mother. 
The  gentleman  had  verified  this  incident  himself 
and  had  no  question  of  the  age  of  the  husband  and 
wife. 

The  native  is  deeply  attached  to  his  surroundings 
and  does  not  take  readily  to  labor  elsewhere.  The 
climate  has  something  to  do  with  this  unwillingness 
to  move.  It  has  been  found  by  experience  that  the 
inhabitants  on  the  punas,  or  table-lands  5,000  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  do  not  work  well  when  taken 
up  another  5,000  feet.  They  are  not  only  home- 
sick; they  suffer  from  real  physical  illness.  It  is 
the  same  with  those  who  are  brought  down  to  the 
lower  plains.  Alcohol  is  the  worst  drawback  to  their 
physical  well-being  and  moral  advancement.  The 
coca  leaf,  the  essential  principle  of  cocaine,  which 
they  use  as  a food,  is  far  less  responsible  for  their  lack 
of  physical  stamina  than  cane  rum. 

In  many  of  the  villages  of  Peru  which  I visited 
I formed  an  impression  that  the  natives  were  further 
advanced  than  in  similar  villages  in  Bolivia  and  Chile. 
There  was  more  cleanliness,  more  evidence  of  good 
order  and  of  wise  local  administration.  They  are 
a brooding,  solitude-loving  race,  though  not  altogether 
spiritless.  How  far  they  still  preserve  the  traditions 
and  sorrow  over  the  Incas  I do  not  profess  to  know, 
but  their  gentle  resistance  makes  it  more  difficult  to 
impose  civilization  on  them  than  would  be  sullen 
opposition. 

While  the  army  is  distasteful  to  the  Indian  popula- 
tion, and  while  they  evade  the  conscription  wherever 
possible,  it  is  one  of  the  strongest  civilizing  forces. 


PEOPLE  AND  INCREASE 


157 


The  discipline  is  good,  and  the  change  of  environment 
also  is  advantageous.  Obedience  has  been  so  fixed 
a habit  of  the  natives  since  the  Spanish  conquest  that 
they  never  think  of  questioning  authority.  As  to  the 
degree  of  superstition  which  is  mingled  with  the  nom- 
inal adhesion  given  by  the  Indian  populations  to  the 
Church,  I do  not  profess  to  judge. 

The  Peruvian  government  seeks  to  enforce  a good 
school  system,  and  in  the  larger  towns  and  villages 
with  some  success.  But  on  the  part  of  the  mass  of 
the  Quichuas  there  is  still  inextinguishable  hostility 
to  learning  Spanish,  not  the  less  effective  because  it 
is  passive.  The  suggestion  has  been  made  that  the 
authorities  provide  a system  of  primary  schools  where 
Quichua  shall  be  the  language  and  shall  be  taught 
systematically.  It  is  the  lingua  general,  or  common 
speech,  of  a large  majority  of  the  inhabitants. 

At  Huanuco,  where  a German  agricultural  colony 
was  established  forty  or  fifty  years  ago,  the  sons  of 
the  early  colonists  still  speak  German,  and  many  of  the 
Quichuas  in  the  neighborhood  have  acquired  a smat- 
tering of  that  language.  Apparently  they  distinguished 
between  the  tongue  of  the  conqueror  and  another 
strange  tongue. 

Under  good  industrial  and  administrative  conditions 
a natural  increase  on  the  basis  of  the  present  Quichua 
and  cholo  population  may  be  expected.  More  com- 
forts of  life,  a little  rudimentary  knowledge  and  prac- 
tice of  hygienic  conveniences,  will  help  to  alter  the 
disproportion  between  the  birth  rate  and  the  death 
rate.  Somewhere  in  their  nature  a spark  of  ambition 
may  be  kindled. 

The  negro  element  in  the  population  in  Peru  is 


158  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


sometimes  remarked  by  strangers.  They  are  told 
that  it  has  become  thoroughly  intermixed  with  the 
native  race.  In  the  early  days  of  the  viceroys,  when 
African  slavery  was  exploited  by  the  two  great  Chris- 
tian powers,  England  and  Spain,  many  Africans  were 
brought  to  Peru.  It  is  thence  that  the  name  Zambo 
or  Sambo  came.  They  are  yet  called  Sambos.  Though 
the  Spanish  and  Indian  intermixture  is  said  to  be 
thorough,  there  seems  to  be  much  of  the  African  racial 
identity  still  preserved.  One  day  in  Lima  I watched 
the  religious  procession  in  honor  of  Our  Senor  of 
America.  Nearly  all  the  processionists  were  negroes, 
unmistakably  so. 

The  Chinese  coolies  were  brought  to  Peru  in  the 
fifties.  They  still  work  in  the  sugar  plantations  and 
the  rice  fields  and  a few  of  them  also  in  the  cotton 
fields.  The  coolie  in  the  second  generation,  however, 
becomes  a storekeeper  and  a property-owner.  On 
some  of  the  sugar  estates  the  Chinese  steward  in  the 
course  of  a few  years  leases  the  plantation  and  later 
becomes  the  owner.  There  are  many  wealthy  China- 
men in  Peru,  and  not  all  of  them  made  their  money  as 
merchants  at  Lima.  The  policy  of  the  government  is 
not  to  encourage  coolie  immigration. 

For  the  industrial  and  political  future  of  which  Peru 
dreams  there  must  be  immigration  as  well  as  the 
natural  increase  of  the  present  native  population.  The 
potter’s  clay  is  not  all  at  hand.  Some  of  it  must  be 
brought  in.  This  immigration  will  be  along  three 
lines,  which  may  be  called  topographical  or  geograph- 
ical, — first,  on  the  coast ; second,  in  the  Sierra ; 
third,  in  the  trans-Andine  country  and  the  vast  basin 
of  the  rivers  that  feed  the  Amazon.  A phenomenal 


PEOPLE  AND  INCREASE 


159 


growth  in  the  population  of  the  latter  region  during 
the  present  generation  is  not  probable,  though  it  has 
enormous  colonization  possibilities  which  gradually 
will  be  utilized,  especially  with  the  opening  up  of  the 
means  of  communication.  Some  of  them,  too,  are 
European  or  Caucasian  possibilities,  for  the  explora- 
tions of  numerous  scientists  and  their  studies  have 
shown  that  the  European  can  live  and  thrive  in  these 
regions.  These  climatic  and  similar  observations  may 
be  had  from  a score  of  books  giving  the  experiences 
of  individuals. 

In  the  development  of  its  mines  Peru  necessarily 
must  add  to  the  population  of  the  Sierra.  Mining 
labor  now  is  hardly  sufficient,  and  the  preference  of 
the  natives  for  agriculture  and  for  service  as  freighters 
makes  the  problem  one  of  increasing  difficulty.  The 
wages  in  the  mines  are  good,  varying  according  to 
locality.  In  the  Sierra  day  labor  can  be  had  for 
about  half  a sol,  which  is  equivalent  to  25  cents  gold. 
The  American  syndicate,  in  building  the  Cerro  de 
Pasco  Railway,  paid  the  natives  a sol,  or  50  cents,  and 
got  satisfactory  returns.  But  for  the  mining  develop- 
ment of  the  future  miners  from  Spain  and  Italy  should 
supply  the  deficiency  that  will  exist  so  long  as  sole 
reliance  is  placed  on  the  natives.  They  may  come  in 
considerable  numbers. 

Irrigation  of  the  region  between  the  Sierra  and  the 
coast  is  assured,  and  this  is  going  to  furnish  the  basis 
for  the  largest  and  earliest  increase  in  population.  A 
portion  of  this  increase  should  also  come  from  Italy 
and  Spain  and  perhaps  also  from  Germany,  for  the 
Germans  are  highly  successful  in  semi-tropical  agricul- 
ture. The  Italians  have  been  very  successful  in  Peru 


160 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


in  retail  trade  and  in  some  of  the  mechanical  employ- 
ments, but  the  conditions  also  are  favorable  for  them 
in  the  agricultural  pursuits.  The  vineyards  in  the 
region  around  Pisco  and  Ica  seem  to  afford  an  espe- 
cially inviting  field  for  them.  By  the  time  the  Panama 
Canal  is  open  the  big  transatlantic  liners  from  Genoa 
and  Naples  which  now  come  to  Colon  should  be 
bringing  a full  quota  of  Italian  immigrants  through 
the  waterway  to  the  Peruvian  ports. 

The  government  has  enacted  liberal  legislation  pro- 
viding for  immigration  and  colonization,  but  it  does 
not  follow  the  theory  of  government-aided  colonies. 
Its  course  is  sound.  It  grants  lands  to  private  enter- 
prises for  colonization,  and  in  the  industrial  plans 
which  are  now  a part  of  its  political  policy  there  is 
a certainty  of  an  increased  population  to  be  drawn 
from  abroad.  An  old  law  authorizes  an  annual  ap- 
propriation of  150,000  for  encouraging  immigration, 
and  the  passage  of  immigrants  may  be  paid,  but  this 
is  the  limit  of  state  aid. 

Colonization  plans  by  private  enterprise  received  a 
check  a few  years  ago,  when  the  Peruvian  Corporation 
abandoned  its  efforts.  Of  the  total  grant  of  2,750,000 
acres  in  the  region  of  the  rivers  Perene  and  Ene  and 
the  Chanchamayo  valley,  more  than  a million  acres 
were  set  aside  for  immediate  peopling.  The  corpora- 
tion began  to  attract  settlers  to  the  lands,  but  the 
movement  was  feeble  and  was  not  sustained.  The 
complaint  made  was  that  instead  of  inviting  fresh 
and  virile  European  immigration  it  drew  the  dregs 
from  neighboring  countries,  taking  colonists  who  had 
proven  their  own  worthlessness  in  the  places  where 
they  first  settled.  The  experiment  was  still  another 


PEOPLE  AND  INCREASE 


161 


instance  of  ignorant  London  directors  and  incompetent 
management. 

Many  of  the  earlier  colonists  in  this  district  went 
into  coffee-growing  with  fair  success.  The  climate, 
the  soil,  the  slopes  of  the  Cordilleras,  all  were  favor- 
able. Good  crops  were  raised  and  found  a profitable 
market.  But  this  market  was  obtained  at  the  period 
when  Brazil  was  changing  from  the  Empire  to  the 
Republic,  and  when  through  that  and  subsequent  dis- 
turbances the  supply  to  meet  the  world’s  demand 
was  interrupted.  When  the  Brazilian  crop  became 
abnormal  in  its  productiveness,  weighting  the  price 
down  below  the  level  of  profitable  production,  coffee- 
raising  no  longer  was  business  for  the  colonists  in 
Peru.  They  themselves  did  not  clearly  perceive  the 
cause  of  their  distress.  Many  of  them,  instead  of 
turning  to  other  products,  got  discouraged  and  went 
away.  But  merely  because  of  this  failure  there  is  no 
ground  to  believe  that  in  the  future  colonizing  move- 
ments in  this  region,  intelligently  directed  by  the 
Peruvian  Corporation  or  by  any  private  company, 
will  not  succeed.  The  climatic  and  soil  conditions 
are  inviting,  and  the  only  question  is  the  means  of 
utilizing  these  gifts  of  Nature.  The  entire  Pichis 
zone  is  favorable  to  European  colonization.  When 
it  is  connected  with  the  Pacific  by  the  extension  of 
the  present  railroad  to  Port  Bermudez  or  some  other 
river  point,  its  colonization  capabilities  will  be  appre- 
ciated ; for  the  lack  of  access  has  been  the  draw- 
back. This  rich  region  lies  within  300  miles  of  the 
coast. 

A similar  observation  may  be  made  concerning  the 
northern  districts.  From  any  one  of  half  a dozen 

II 


1G2 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


little  seaports  the  valleys  of  the  Maranon  and  its 
tributaries  are  less  than  200  miles  distant.  But 
the  Continental  Divide  lies  between,  and  this  mass 
of  mountain  wall  must  be  pierced  by  the  railroad. 
Once  this  is  done,  the  immigration  possibilities  of 
northern  Peru  will  develop  rapidly. 

For  all  this  there  must  be  faith,  and  resolution, 
and  definite  measures.  It  is  not  a question  of  set- 
tling a new  land,  for  Peru  is  an  old,  old  country. 
Nor  is  it  the  problem  of  reconstructing  the  ancient 
civilization  of  the  Incas,  or  the  civilization  which 
twentieth-century  iconoclastic  antiquarians  charge  the 
Incas  with  stealing  from  other  races.  In  its  eco- 
nomic aspect  the  matter  is  simply  one  of  getting 
more  people  into  a country  which  has  plenty  of 
room  for  them. 

During  a stay  in  Lima  I spent  an  afternoon  with 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Wood,  a Methodist  Episcopal  mis- 
sionary, who  had  been  in  South  America  for  thirty 
years,  and  who  had  made  the  most  discriminating 
study  of  social  conditions  of  any  Yankee  living  in 
the  Andes.  I came  away  permeated  with  some  of 
Dr.  Wood’s  enthusiasm  and,  I hope,  with  some  of  his 
devout  faith.  The  South  American  continent,  he 
declared,  had  been  held  in  reserve  by  Providence 
for  a time  when  the  population  of  other  countries 
would  press  for  room  and  for  means  of  subsistence. 
The  present  Peru,  he  thought,  was  easily  capable  of 
supporting  20,000,000  inhabitants  in  conditions  of 
life  and  comfort  similar  to  those  enjoyed  by  dwellers 
in  the  Alps  and  the  Apennines. 

But  if,  in  the  years  pending  the  completion  of 
the  Panama  Canal,  Peru  by  natural  increase  and  by 


PEOPLE  AND  INCREASE 


163 


immigration  can  add  1,000,000  to  her  population, 
that  modest  addition  will  determine  her  industrial 
future.  A million  more  people  during  the  next  ten 
years  will  mean  an  extra  2,000,000  in  the  decade 
that  follows.  The  horizon  does  not  need  to  be 
extended  farther. 


CHAPTER  XI 

PERU’S  GROWING  STABILITY 

Seeds  of  Revolution  Running  Out  — Educated  Classes  Not  the  Sole 
Conservative  Force  — President  Candamds  Peacemaking  Ad- 
ministration — Crisis  Precipitated  by  his  Death  — Triumph 
of  Civil  Party  in  the  Choice  of  his  Successor  — President 
Pardo's  Liberal  and  Progressive  Policies  — Growth  in  Popu- 
lar Institutions  — Form  of  Peruvian  Constitution  and  Govern- 
ment — Attitude  of  the  Church  — Rights  of  Foreigners  — 
Sources  of  Revenue  — Stubborn  Adherence  to  Gold  Standard 
— Interoceanic  Canal’s  Aid  in  the  National  Development. 

WHEN  Professor  James  Bryce  wanted  an  apt 
illustration  of  the  numerous  elections  in  the 
United  States,  he  compared  them  in  their  frequency 
to  revolutions  in  Peru.  The  comparison  was  not 
unjust.  Civil  wars  have  occurred  almost  as  often. 
The  bloodiest  drama  was  enacted  as  recently  as  1895. 
In  that  year  the  streets  of  Lima  were  choked  with 
corpses  and  ran  with  the  blood  of  brother  shed  by 
brother.  No  one  to-day  can  give  a rational  cause  for 
it.  A few  years  earlier,  when  Peru  yet  was  prostrate 
at  the  feet  of  Chile,  there  were  revolutions  and  counter- 
revolutions. 

But  the  seeds  of  revolution  do  run  out  after  cen- 
turies. The  soil  grows  barren.  The  soil  in  this  case 
is  the  mass  of  aboriginal  population,  the  Indians  and 
the  mixed  bloods,  who  have  known  only  blindly  to 
follow  one  chief  or  another.  Slowly  they  learned  that 
in  the  revolving  of  rulers  they  were  no  better  off.  An 


PERU’S  GROWING  STABILITY  165 

English  monarchist  repeated  to  me  the  story  of  an  old 
Indian  at  Chosica.  He  was  bent  with  age  and  hard 
work,  was  in  rags  and  was  a beggar.  This  was  after 
the  Spanish  power  had  been  broken  and  independence 
established.  He  came  one  day  to  the  group  of  polit- 
ical chiefs  who  were  then  in  control  and  were  con- 
trolling for  the  benefit  of  themselves.  They  were 
eulogizing  Liberty  and  the  glory  of  having  done  with 
kingships.  The  old  fellow  listened  and  then  meekly 
remarked:  “ But,  sirs,  it  is  all  the  same.  Under  the 
viceroy  I was  a beggar.  Under  the  Republic  and 
your  Honors,  I am  a beggar.  I don’t  see  that  Lib- 
erty means  anything  to  poor  old  Juan  Martinez.” 

For  the  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  it  has  not  been  quite 
so  bad,  because  even  the  republican  semblance  of 
government  has  been  better  training  for  them  than  the 
monarchical  rule.  Yet  in  the  uprisings  and  counter- 
uprisings they  were  like  the  old  beggar.  Whatever 
dictator  was  in  and  was  promulgating  high-sounding 
proclamations  of  liberty,  they  were  no  better  off  than 
under  his  predecessor.  They  followed  one  cacique 
(chief  or  boss)  or  another,  killed  one  another  at  his 
behest,  and  then  settled  back  in  the  old  way.  But  of 
late  years  the  condition  of  the  mass  of  the  Indian 
and  mixed  population  has  improved.  I take  this 
statement  on  the  evidence  of  discriminating  foreign- 
ers, and  not  as  a conclusion  from  my  own  observa- 
tions, which  were  made  within  too  short  a period 
to  afford  a basis  for  comparison.  It  is  the  testimony 
of  the  Europeans  that  more  than  one  ambitious 
leader  has  been  willing  to  lead  revolt  when  his  fac- 
tion lost,  but  he  could  not  get  followers  or  dupes, 
and  therefore  he  acquiesced. 


166  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


It  is  true  also  that  the  educated  classes  have  become 
more  stable  and  have  put  forth  a stronger  influence 
against  political  disturbances.  Yet  over-credit  should 
not  be  given  them,  for  the  hot  Spanish  blood  in  all  of 
them  has  not  been  brought  down  to  an  even  temper- 
ature. This  was  very  forcibly  impressed  on  me  during 
the  Spring  of  1903,  when  the  presidential  election  was 
pending,  Senor  Miguel  Candamo,  for  several  years 
president  of  the  Lima  Chamber  of  Commerce,  was  the 
only  candidate  who  had  a political  party  back  of  him. 
He  had  been  an  influential  supporter  of  the  liberal 
administration  of  President  Romana.  He  was  the 
choice  of  the  Constitutionalists  and  Civilistas.  There 
was  another  aspirant  whose  canvass  was  entirely  per- 
sonal. Besides  the  Civilistas  the  only  important  po- 
litical organization  was  the  Popular  Democrats,  who 
were  supposed  to  represent  the  popular  element,  or 
the  masses.  They  nominated  no  candidate,  but  they 
sought  to  control  the  Congress. 

One  of  their  leaders,  Senor  A , calmly  explained 

to  me  that  they  would  get  control  of  Congress,  would 
declare  the  election  null  and  void,  and  substitute  their 
own  man  for  Senor  Candamo.  He  looked  on  this  as 

perfectly  legitimate  politics.  Senor  A had  been 

educated  in  the  United  States  in  order  to  have  the 
benefit  of  free  government,  had  spent  his  youth  there, 
and  after  returning  to  Peru  had  held  important  public 
offices.  When  he  was  explaining  to  me  the  plans  of 
his  faction,  the  future  of  Peru  hinged  on  the  peaceful 
succession  to  President  Romana. 

After  Senor  Candamo  had  been  chosen  for  a faction 
which  had  not  even  proposed  an  opposing  candidate, 
to  seek  to  prevent  his  inauguration  and  put  in  its  own 


PERU’S  GROWING  STABILITY  167 


man  — who  never  had  made  even  a pretence  of  seek- 
ing the  suffrage  of  the  electors  — meant  to  precipitate, 
if  not  actual  revolution,  a condition  fully  as  bad.  It 
meant  to  destroy  the  confidence  of  foreign  capital,  and 
to  take  from  Peru  the  prestige  which  she  slowly  was 
regaining  among  South  American  nations.  It  was 
inconceivable  how  a patriotic  Peruvian  could  harbor 
a purpose  of  encouraging  such  a condition,  and  yet 

Senor  A was  intensely  patriotic  and  ready  to  fight 

for  his  country. 

The  election  was  held,  and  some  of  the  hot-heads, 
among  whom  was  Senor  A , did  undertake  to  ques- 

tion the  result,  and  for  a brief  period  the  fate  of  Peru 
trembled  in  the  balance.  It  was  settled  by  the  stern 
displeasure  of  General  Nicolas  de  Pierola,  the  former 
President,  himself  the  chief  actor  in  many  revolutions 
and  at  that  time  the  leader  of  the  Popular  Democratic 
party.  He  told  his  radical  followers  that  insurrec- 
tion against  the  government  would  be  treason  to  the 
nation,  and  Senor  Candamo  was  inaugurated  with  his 
support. 

In  this  incident  I do  not  mean  to  lose  sight  of  the 
real  significance,  which  was  that  patriotism  did  triumph, 

but  it  was  in  spite  of  Sefior  A and  a group  of  highly 

educated  Peruvians,  like  himself,  who  would  have 
revolted  if  they  could  have  been  sure  of  enough  fol- 
lowers. It  showed  that  Peru’s  educated  classes  were 
not  yet  educated  to  the  point  where  they  alone  could 
be  trusted  with  the  destinies  of  their  country,  but  that 
the  bulk  of  the  population,  this  common  clay,  was 
acquiring  a conservatism  which  insured  the  future. 
Let  hard  times  come  and  there  may  be  some  dis- 
content among  this  mass,  yet  it  will  not  be  moulded 


168  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


to  the  ambitious  purposes  of  selfish  leaders  so  easily 
as  formerly.  The  national  policy  on  which  Peru  has 
entered  is  one  that,  by  the  material  development  which 
it  promises  and  the  industrial  and  agricultural  pros- 
perity which  its  carrying  out  assures,  is  a guaranty,  so 
far  as  administrative  measures  can  be,  against  economic 
depression,  and  consequently  of  conservatism  among 
the  mass  of  the  people. 

Another  test  came  when,  a few  months  after  Presi- 
dent Candamo’s  inauguration,  he  was  taken  ill  and 
in  May,  1904,  died.  He  had  been  conspicuously  and 
honorably  identified  with  the  history  of  Peru,  had  the 
confidence  of  the  whole  people,  and  especially  of 
the  commercial  classes  both  foreign  and  native.  His 
programme  had  been  purely  a civilian  one.  All  the 
political  parties  had  been  harmonized  and  were  sup- 
porters of  his  administration.  His  death  inevitably 
brought  on  a contest  for  the  succession.  In  this 
struggle  there  was  to  be  an  alignment  of  political 
organizations.  Again  Peru  was  approaching  a crisis 
which  would  test  her  stability,  and  show  the  world 
whether  confidence  could  be  placed  that  the  progres- 
sive career  on  which  she  had  entered  would  be  un- 
interrupted by  domestic  dissensions. 

Under  the  Peruvian  Constitution  a first  and  a second 
vice-president  are  chosen,  but  the  vice-president  has 
not  exactly  similar  functions  to  that  official  in  the 
United  States.  The  first  vice-president,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  the  president  or  his  temporary  retirement 
from  official  cares,  discharges  the  responsibilities  of 
the  executive  office,  and  in  the  absence  or  disabil- 
ity of  the  first  vice-president  the  second  one  acts. 
But  in  the  event  of  the  death  of  the  Executive,  the 


PERU’S  GROWING  STABILITY  169 


vice-president  fills  the  office  only  until  an  election  can 
be  called  and  a successor  chosen.  It  happened  in  1903 
that  Senor  Acorta,  who  was  chosen  first  vice-president, 
died  before  the  inauguration.  On  the  death  of  Presi- 
dent Candamo,  Senor  Serapio  Calderon,  the  second 
vice-president,  discharged  the  executive  functions  and 
issued  the  call  for  the  election  of  a new  chief  mas;is- 
trate.  If  the  emergency  had  been  pressing,  he  could 
have  called  the  Congress  in  extra  session. 

The  administration  between  the  death  of  President 
Candamo  and  the  inauguration  of  his  elected  successor 
was  in  essence  a provisional  one.  Judge  Alberto 
Elmore  was  called  from  the  Supreme  Bench  to  become 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  and  president  of  the 
Council  of  State.  By  Peruvian  law  the  nation  can 
have  the  services  of  its  jurists  in  political  positions 
temporarily  without  the  necessity  of  their  leaving 
the  bench  permanently.  I had  known  and  esteemed 
Judge  Elmore  as  a colleague  in  the  Pan-American 
Conference  in  Mexico,  and  in  common  with  other 
friends  of  Peru  was  reassured  on  reading  the  news 
that  he  would  be  at  the  head  of  the  cabinet  duringr 

O 

the  period  of  uncertainty  that  was  to  ensue.  His 
firmness  and  equipoise  were  a pledge  of  public  order, 
if  not  of  complete  tranquillity.  Mr.  Manuel  Alvarez 
Calderon,  the  Peruvian  minister  in  Washington,  in 
announcing  that  the  death  of  President  Candamo 
would  cause  no  halt  in  the  progress  of  Peru,  had 
spoken  with  the  voice  of  authority. 

After  some  delay  nominations  were  made  by  the 
opposing  political  parties.  The  Civilistas  united  on 
Senor  Jose  Pardo  as  their  choice,  and  the  Constitu- 
tionalists endorsed  him,  he  becoming  the  candidate. 


170  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


of  this  coalition.  The  Popular  Democrats  and  a 
political  group  known  as  the  Liberals  named  General 
Nicolas  de  Pierola,  the  former  President,  as  their  candi- 
date. His  career  in  the  stormy  periods  of  Peruvian 
history  for  forty  years  had  made  him  a leading  char- 
acter and  he  had  strong  influence  with  the  masses. 
On  his  retirement  from  the  presidency  he  had  become 
the  head  of  a business  enterprise  in  Lima.  His  old 
opponent,  General  Caceres,  one  of  the  Constitutional- 
ists, supported  Senor  Pardo. 

Jose  Pardo  is  a member  of  a distinguished  family, 
one  of  several  brothers  influential  in  the  business  and 
politics  of  the  country,  sons  of  the  President  who 
founded  the  Civil  party  in  1872.  He  was  educated 
for  the  law,  and  had  been  in  the  diplomatic  service  in 
Europe,  but  had  returned  to  Peru  and  was  occupied 
as  a sugar-planter  when  Miguel  Candamo  was  chosen 
President.  He  was  one  of  Senor  Candamo’s  active 
supporters,  and  entered  the  latter’s  cabinet  as  Min- 
ister of  Foreign  Aflfairs.  He  was  generally  recognized 
as  the  coming  leader  of  the  Civilistas,  and  was  sur- 
rounded by  a group  of  young  men  who  were  aggres- 
sive in  their  advocacy  of  civilian  policies.  His  speech 
in  accepting  his  party’s  nomination  was  singularly  free 
from  the  generalities  and  the  apostrophes  to  Liberty 
with  which  presidential  candidates  and  dictators  in  the 
Spanish-American  Republics  are  accustomed  to  season 
their  discourses.  Instead  it  was  a plea  for  a school  sys- 
tem, internal  improvements,  railways,  irrigation,  harbor 
works,  fiscal  reforms,  and  economical  administration. 

General  Pierola  also  made  industrial  measures  the 
leading  feature  of  his  programme. 

The  campaign  caused  anxiety,  though  the  tension 


Portrait  of  Jose  Pardo,  President  of  Peru 


PERU’S  GROWING  STABILITY  171 


clearly  was  less  than  in  the  previous  year  in  the  pe- 
riod between  Senor  Candarao’s  election  and  his  inau- 
guration. Demonstrations  by  the  rival  political  groups 
resulted  in  bad  blood,  there  were  collisions  with  the 
police  in  which  several  persons  were  killed  or  injured, 
and  election  riots  after  the  manner  of  some  sections 
of  the  United  States.  But  these  incidents  were  not 
numerous  enough  to  show  the  existence  of  a revolu- 
tionary spirit,  and  they  were  dismissed  with  the  euphe- 
mistic designation  of  “ electoral  effervescences.” 

Meanwhile  the  real  electoral  contest  was  going  on 
in  the  newspapers,  in  meetings,  and  by  manifestoes 
and  addresses  to  the  public.  It  soon  became  evident 
that  the  Civil  party  with  Senor  Pardo  as  its  leader 
would  triumph.  The  Pierolistas  asked  the  govern- 
ment for  a postponement  of  the  election.  This  was 
refused  on  the  ground  that  under  the  laws  and  the 
Constitution  no  authority  existed  for  such  postpone- 
ment. Then  the  Pierola  ticket  was  withdrawn  by  the 
Popular  Democrats  and  the  Liberals,  and  their  fol- 
lowers were  advised  not  to  vote.  This  action  was  a 
resort  to  the  minority  method  practised  in  Spain  and 
her  offshoot  countries  in  America.  It  is  an  admission 
in  advance  that  the  other  party  will  win. 

After  General  Pierola’s  withdrawal  the  Civilistas 
and  their  allies  exerted  themselves  against  what  in  the 
United  States  is  called  apathy.  To  comply  with  the 
law  and  make  the  election  valid,  it  was  necessary  to 
have  one-third  of  the  registered  vote  cast.  The  pro- 
portion of  the  ballots  was  much  larger  than  that. 
Senor  Pardo  was  elected  in  August  and  inaugurated 
in  September.  He  formed  his  cabinet  with  young 
blood  tempered  by  experience.  Seiior  Leguia,  who  as 


172 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


his  colleague  in  President  Candamo’s  cabinet  had  been 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  and  had  been  the  warm  ad- 
vocate of  the  new  industrial  policy,  was  called  to  the 
Treasury  again  and  became  president  of  the  cabinet. 
Other  members  of  the  cabinet  selected  also  had  the 
confidence  of  the  public.  The  continuance  of  civil 
administration  and  the  dominance  of  civilian  measures 
were  reaffirmed,  and  it  was  shown  that  Peru  had  taken 
another  stride  toward  stability  by  the  acquiescence  of 
the  defeated  party.  The  opposition  made  no  effort  to 
question  the  election. 

Peru’s  growth  in  genuine  popular  institutions  and 
the  recognition  of  public  sentiment  has  been  shown 
in  the  caution  with  which  the  executive  power  has 
been  exercised  by  the  presidents  during  the  last 
twelve  or  fifteen  years.  There  has  been  little  of 
the  dictator  either  in  disguise  or  in  proper  person. 
Under  President  Pardo  representative  government  is 
certain  to  make  further  progress. 

I have  given  the  substance  and  the  spirit  of  the 
government  of  Peru  as  it  exists  to-day,  leaving  only 
brief  space  for  an  analysis  of  the  form.  The  Consti- 
tution now  in  force  was  adopted  in  i860  and  was 
modelled  after  that  of  the  United  States.  Power  is 
centralized,  though  there  is  a reasonable  measure  of 
local  self-government  or  local  administration.  Geo- 
graphical isolation  of  the  different  sections  is  one  cause 
of  the  centralized  authority.  The  political  division  of 
the  Republic  is  into  21  departments,  which  are  sub- 
divided into  97  provinces,  and  these  into  778  districts. 
The  source  of  administrative  authority  in  each  depart- 
ment is  the  prefect,  who  is  named  by  the  central  gov- 
ernment. In  many  of  the  departments  the  prefect  is 


PERU’S  GROWING  STABILITY  173 


an  officer  of  the  regular  army.  Each  of  the  provinces 
has  a sub-prefect,  and  the  districts  have  their  local 
rulers  or  governors,  depending  from  the  higher  power. 
In  the  municipalities  the  alcalde  is  appointed,  but  the 
members  of  the  Council  are  elected.  The  Amazon 
Province  of  Loreto  has  a system  of  administration 
somewhat  different  from  the  other  departments.  It 
is  more  under  military  administration.  The  customs 
administration  at  Iquitos  also  requires  a close  super- 
vision by  the  national  authorities. 

The  powers  of  the  Executive  are  defined  with  clear- 
ness. They  are  complete,  though  there  is  something 
of  a limitation  in  the  Council  of  State  and  the  cabinet. 
Members  of  the  cabinet  occupy  a position  midway 
between  constitutional  advisers  and  clerks  of  the  Ex- 
ecutive. The  Council  of  State,  which  v/as  created  by 
law  in  1896,  is  in  some  respects  an  executive  body. 
When  the  cabinet  is  in  full  sympathy  with  the  Presi- 
dent, the  Council  of  State  is  his  instrument.  But 
when  this  body  is  made  up  of  warring  political  ele- 
ments, the  President  is  not  always  able  to  have  his 
way.  The  system  obtains  of  having  the  various  po- 
litical groups  represented,  and  when  there  is  a hostile 
majority  in  the  Congress  that  is  the  only  means  by 
which  the  government  can  be  carried  on.  Frequently 
it  results  in  an  administration  of  cross  purposes.  The 
cabinet  members  may  be  also  members  of  the  Con- 
gress, and  may  be  summoned  before  either  branch 
of  that  body  to  give  explanations  and  may  take  part 
in  the  debates.  The  Peruvian  Congress  is  peculiar  in 
one  respect.  This  is  in  the  election  of  suplentes^  or 
deputy  representatives  and  deputy  senators.  When 
the  election  is  held,  it  is  both  for  members  and  for 


174 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


deputy  members.  Thus  it  happens  that  the  Congress 
never  need  be  without  a quorum  in  either  branch,  and 
no  district  or  department  need  be  deprived  of  repre- 
sentation temporarily  by  the  death  or  absence  of  the 
senator  or  representative.  His  deputy  can  be  counted 
on  to  attend  the  sessions. 

The  Church  is  a part  of  the  state  in  Peru,  and  has 
been  usually  an  unprogressive  part.  The  ecclesiastical 
organization  consists  of  an  archbishop,  resident  in 
Lima,  and  eight  suffragan  bishops  for  the  various 
dioceses.  The  Church  as  an  institution  has  opposed 
movements  to  liberalize  Peru,  and  has  instigated  revo- 
lutions against  reforms. 

Roman  Catholicism  is  intrenched  in  the  Constitution, 
not  only  as  the  religion  of  the  state,  but  by  the  pro- 
hibition of  other  forms  of  worship.  The  Protestant 
congregations  are  not  numerous,  and  it  is  still  neces- 
sary to  call  their  places  of  worship  halls  instead  of 
churches.  Yet  under  liberal  administrations  no  real 
difficulty  is  experienced  by  the  missionaries  who  tem- 
per good  sense  with  zeal.  In  remote  districts  the 
central  government  cannot  always  insure  protection 
against  local  prejudices,  but  its  authority  is  exerted  to 
that  end.  The  testimony  of  the  missionaries  them- 
selves is  that  they  are  meeting  fewer  and  fewer  diffi- 
culties, and  even  in  the  strongholds  of  intolerance, 
such  as  Cuzco  and  Arequipa,  they  are  able  to  carry 
on  their  proselyting  labors  without  interference. 

In  the  passing  of  years  the  Constitution  of  Peru 
will  be  amended  so  as  to  welcome  Protestantism, 
though  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  will  remain  the 
state  church.  This  constitutional  amendment  is  some- 
what cumbersome,  since  it  requires  consecutive  action 


PERU’S  GROWING  STABILITY  175 


by  two  Congresses  in  order  to  become  effective ; 
but  the  sentiment  in  favor  of  it  is  spreading  and 
propositions  already  have  been  presented  to  Congress. 
Wise  Protestants  do  not  believe  in  urging  it  too 
rapidly.  They  realize  that,  with  a succession  of  liberal 
governments  and  with  the  toleration  that  already  is 
manifest,  Protestantism  can  afford  to  wait  and  work. 

The  provisions  of  the  Peruvian  Constitution  and 
the  laws  with  regard  to  foreigners  are  liberal.  For- 
eigners may  be  naturalized  after  two  years’  residence. 
The  government  at  Lima  through  the  prefects  ex- 
tends every  possible  protection  to  those  who  are 
travelling  or  who  seek  to  engage  in  mining  or  other 
industries.  The  trouble  which  arises  generally  is  with 
the  local  authorities,  and  Europeans  or  Americans  who 
have  a reasonable  degree  of  tact  and  are  willing  to 
adapt  themselves  to  their  surroundings  usually  can 
make  themselves  personas  gratas.  Where  they  start 
in  with  the  disposition  to  flaunt  their  foreign  citizen- 
ship and  to  override  the  natives,  not  even  the  central 
authority  can  prevent  local  antagonisms.  In  four 
cases  out  of  five  the  foreigner  in  Peru  who  gets  into 
trouble  with  the  local  authorities  has  only  himself  to 
blame. 

The  government  in  the  laws  it  has  promulgated  for 
the  mining  industry,  for  the  exploitation  of  the  rubber 
forests,  for  irrigation,  and  for  the  navigation  of  the 
waterways  has  sought  especially  to  protect  and  en- 
courage foreign  capital  and  individuals.  Foreigners 
may  be  members  of  the  deputations  or  delegations 
which  are  provided  in  the  mining-code,  and  they  also 
may  serve  in  the  municipal  councils.  On  the  alder- 
manic  ticket  at  Cuzco  and  other  places  I found  English 


17C 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


and  German  names,  and  was  told  that  these  candi- 
dates had  not  been  naturalized  and  had  no  intention 
of  being.  This  provision  should  be  of  particular 
value  in  colonization  movements  where  communities 
may  be  established  without  the  native  Peruvians. 

In  relation  to  income  and  outgo  there  are  three 
sources  of  revenue,  — general,  municipal,  and  depart- 
mental. The  general  revenues  are  had  from  the  cus- 
toms import  and  export  duties,  from  the  stamp  tax, 
and  from  the  internal  revenues  on  tobacco,  alcohol, 
sugar,  matches,  and  similar  articles  of  consumption. 
Salt  is  a natural  monopoly.  The  departmental  rev- 
enues are  from  the  land  tax  (which  is  very  light), 
from  the  imposts  on  property  transfers,  from  the  in- 
heritance tax,  and  from  a variety  of  industrial  sources. 
The  municipal  taxes  are  obtained  from  local  tolls,  li- 
censes, surveys,  and  like  means.  They  are  not  heavy. 

Somewhat  curiously  in  this  age,  the  collection  of  the 
internal  taxes  is  farmed  out  by  the  national  govern- 
ment. A joint-stock  company  known  as  the  National 
Tax  Collection  Society,  Compania  Nacional  de  Recau- 
dacion,  by  an  agreement  with  the  government  collects 
all  these  revenues  and  turns  them  in,  retaining  its  per- 
centage and  providing  loans  when  needed  for  current 
purposes.  The  stock  of  this  company  was  taken 
mainly  by  the  Lima  Chamber  of  Commerce.  There 
is  also  in  Lima  a provincial  tax  collection  association, 
which  takes  charge  of  the  local  revenues  in  the  same 
manner  that  the  national  company  collects  the  general 
revenues.  Contrary  to  what  might  be  supposed,  this 
system  works  very  well,  and  is  satisfactory  to  the  tax- 
payers, while  the  government  gets  a larger  return  than 
if  it  itself  were  the  collector. 


PERU’S  GROWING  STABILITY  177 


Peru  is  almost  exceptional  among  the  South  Ameri- 
can Republics  for  establishing  and  maintaining  the 
gold  standard.  This  is  a brilliant  and  instructive 
chapter  of  financial  history.  The  beginning  was 
made  in  1897,  following  the  presidential  election  in 
the  United  States.  General  Pierola  was  President 
and  was  strongly  in  favor  of  the  gold  basis.  Though 
Peru  was  a silver-producing  country,  a law  was  passed 
providing  that  gold  should  be  the  sole  standard,  that 
the  customs  duties  should  be  thus  paid,  that  there 
should  be  no  further  silver  coinage,  and  that  the  ratio 
should  be  ten  soles  of  silver,  equal  to  the  English 
pound  sterling,  or  the  Peruvian  pound  sterling,  which 
is  the  exact  equivalent  in  weight  and  fineness  of  the 
English  pound  and  is  known  as  the  inca.  It  also 
was  provided  that  silver  should  not  be  legal  tender  in 
amounts  greater  than  $100,  that  no  person  should  be 
permitted  to  bring  more  than  ten  soles  into  the  coun- 
try, and  that  the  export  duties  on  silver  should  be 
repealed. 

Subsequent  legislation  strengthened  this  law,  and  the 
government  by  an  arrangement  with  the  banks  called 
in  and  melted  into  bullion  the  redundant  soles,  itself 
taking  the  loss.  There  was  opposition,  especially  in 
the  Cerro  de  Pasco  mining-region,  where  the  output 
of  silver  was  greatest.  In  the  interior  also  the  Indi- 
ans, who  had  been  accustomed  to  silver,  could  not  be 
made  to  understand  gold.  But  as  they  have  few 
transactions  in  which  a yellow  coin  is  necessary,  this 
was  not  a serious  drawback.  Silver  enough  remains 
in  circulation,  and  at  Arequipa  and  other  interior 
commercial  points  gold  yet  can  be  had  only  by  pay- 
ing a slight  premium.  In  the  natural  processes  of  com- 

12 


178 


PANAINIA  TO  PATAGONIA 


merce  a considerable  quantity  of  the  minted  gold  of 
other  countries  is  imported,  the  amount  having  reached 
11,900,000  in  1903.  No  question  exists  that  Peru’s 
gold  standard  has  been  immensely  beneficial  in  main- 
taining the  credit  of  the  country  abroad  and  in  facili- 
tating commerce  at  home. 

Paper  money,  either  bank  emissions  or  national 
notes,  is  prohibited  by  the  law  of  1879. 
rency  which  was  in  circulation  in  1881  was  converted 
into  the  internal  debt.  This  internal  debt  grew  out 
of  the  calling  in  of  the  paper  currency  and  the  liqui- 
dation of  old  accounts.  The  total  is  approximately 
1 1 5,000,000.  A small  yearly  disbursement  is  required 
for  its  service.  Part  of  this  so-called  internal  debt  earns 
I per  cent  yearly  interest,  and  the  remainder  receives 
no  interest,  being  provided  for  out  of  a redemption 
fund  which  amounts  to  ^125,000  annually.  The 
liquidation  has  been  regularly  carried  on  since  the 
bonds  were  issued  under  the  terms  of  the  law  of 
1888.  The  yearly  fund  appropriated  for  interest  and 
the  sinking  fund  remain  stationary  unless  increased  by 
Congress. 

In  the  ten  years  following  1895  the  banking  capi- 
tal of  Peru  increased  at  the  rate  of  1 50  per  cent, 
while  the  deposit  accounts  ran  up  from  ^4,500,000 
to  1 14,000,000.  The  banks  pay  dividends  of  14  to 
16  per  cent.  Volumes  might  be  written  about  the 
causes  which  are  leading  to  the  commercial  and  indus- 
trial prosperity  of  the  country  and  contributing  to  the 
political  stability.  The  convincing  evidence  of  the 
fact  is  the  growth  in  the  bank  deposits. 

In  the  chapters  on  Peru  I have  sought  to  show 
something  of  the  country  and  the  people,  of  the  re- 


PERU’S  GROWING  STABILITY  179 


sources  and  the  commerce,  of  the  economic  prospects 
and  the  political  conditions,  for  all  of  them  must  be 
known  if  the  country’s  future  is  to  be  judged.  What 
the  joining  of  the  Amazon  to  the  Pacific  means,  what 
the  new  industrial  life  promises,  what  the  govern- 
mental stability  signifies,  may  find  an  answer  in  what 
has  been  written,  for  I believe  in  the  destiny  of  Peru, 
but  not  an  iridescent,  dazzling  destiny  to  be  realized 
within  a twelvemonth  or  a decade.  Instead,  a gradual 
growth  to  be  attained  by  a plodding  policy,  sympa- 
thetic to  the  popular  aspirations  yet  rock-rooted  in 
sound  principles  of  national  progress.  The  Panama 
Canal  helps  to  develop  the  Amazon  section  of  Pe- 
ruvian territory,  vivifies  industries,  and  strengthens 
already  stable  governments  by  contributing  to  their 
commercial  prosperity.  Its  impression  on  Peru  is 
deep  and  lasting,  for  under  its  beneficent  influence  the 
seeds  of  revolution  will  cease  to  germinate. 


CHAPTER  XII 


ALONG  COAST  TO  MAGELLAN  STRAITS 

Arica  the  Emerald  Gem  of  the  IV est  Coast  — Memorable  Earth- 
quake History  — A Future  Emporium  of  Commerce  for  the 
Canal  — Iquique  the  Nitrate  Port  — V alue  of  the  Trade  — 
Antofagasta’ s Copper  Exports  — Caldera  and  the  Trans- 
Andine  Railway  to  Argentina — Valparaiso’s  Preeminence 
among  Pacific  Ports  — Extensive  Shipping  and  Execrable 
Harbor  — Plans  for  Improvement  — No  Fear  of  Loss  from  the 
Interoceanic  IV aterway  — Coal  and  Copper  at  Lota  — Con- 
cepcion and  Other  Towns  — Rough  Passage  into  the  Straits  — 
Cape  Pillar  — Punta  Arenas^  the  Southernmost  Town  of  the 
IV orld  — Trade  and  Future. 

The  emerald  gem  of  the  West  Coast  is  Arica,  a 
day’s  voyage  from  Mollendo.  After  days  and 
weeks  of  rocky  coast  without  vegetation  and  of  the 
long  chain  of  the  naked  Andes  farther  inland,  the 
clumps  of  green  trees  and  the  bushy  fringe  of  verdure 
along  the  sandy  beach  are  a seeming  paradise  and  a 
close  one  too.  The  huge  cliffs  which  beetle  over 
Arica  do  not  appear  so  barren  as  those  farther  north, 
and  the  flat-topped  hills  do  not  limit  the  vision  so  en- 
tirely as  to  shut  out  the  thread  of  valley  which  marks 
the  line  of  the  railway  back  to  Tacna  and  the  desert. 
On  the  highest  hill  is  a great  cross,  but  down  on  the 
level  are  ancient  and  modern  windmills.  The  train  is 
slowly  puffing  its  way  across  the  plain,  while  the  bay 
is  filled  with  rowboats  and  small  launches.  In  all  it 
is  a charming,  reposeful  sight.  The  island  fort  at  the 


MAGELLAN  STRAITS 


181 


base  of  the  cliffs  is  rugged  and  stern,  but  it  does  not 
spoil  the  picture. 

Ashore  are  a handsome  little  plaza  with  an  elliptical 
enclosed  plot  of  shrubbery  in  the  centre,  blue  morning- 
glories  and  purple  vine  trees.  Lieutenant  Commander 
de  Faramond,  the  French  naval  officer  who  went 
ashore  with  me,  stopped  to  look  at  the  flowers  a 
moment.  “Aha!”  he  remarked,  “they  have  the 
fever  here.  This  is  the  purple  fever  flower  of  Algiers. 
Wherever  it  grows  you  And  sickness.”  Later  I made 
inquiries  and  learned  that  he  was  correct.  Arica, 
while  a most  charming  spot,  is  peculiarly  subject  to 
malarial  influences. 

But  a walk  through  the  town  deepens  the  pleasing 
impression.  There  is  a well-built  custom  house,  the 
sloping  cobble-paved  streets  are  clean,  and  the  dwell- 
ings are  very  attractive.  The  latter  are  neat  one-story 
structures.  Some  are  blue  as  to  exterior,  some  sub- 
dued green,  others  brown  or  orange, — a real  prismatic 
blending.  Most  of  them  have  arbor-arched  entrances, 
and  the  passing  view  of  the  interior  is  delightful.  The 
church  is  the  biggest  building,  and  at  a distance  it  is 
not  unattractive,  though  it  does  not  improve  archi- 
tecturally on  near  approach.  Glimpses  of  native  life 
are  afforded  by  the  Indian  women  coming  in  from 
the  country.  Some  of  them  are  mounted  astride  their 
donkeys,  while  the  panniers,  or  baskets  which  contain 
their  merchandise,  almost  smother  them.  Others 
trudge  along  by  the  sides  of  their  animals.  The 
buildings  in  Arica  are  of  galvanized  or  corrugated 
iron.  They  are  of  one  story,  so  that  they  will  not  be 
shaken  down  by  the  earthquakes. 

Arica’s  history  has  been  a memorable  one.  Sir 


182  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


Francis  Drake  and  his  sea-hawks  from  the  Golden 
Hind  who  touched  there  in  1579,  found  a collection 
of  a score  of  Indian  huts.  The  earthquake  record 
begins  in  1605.  The  most  celebrated  of  these  convul- 
sions of  Nature  was  that  of  1868,  when  the  United 
States  frigate  IV ateree  was  carried  a mile  inland  by  the 
tidal  wave,  and  left  there  to  become  the  dwelling  of 
a number  of  Indian  families,  until  another  earthquake 
and  tidal  wave  drew  it  back  toward  the  beach  with- 
out harm  to  the  inmates.  The  companion  ship,  the 
Fredonia  was  destroyed. 

Commerce  passes  through  Arica  chiefly  for  Bolivia. 
Mules  and  burros  transport  the  freight  from  the  rail- 
way terminus  at  Tacna  into  the  interior.  The  imports 
are  mining-supplies  and  miscellaneous  merchandise. 
The  exports  are  saltpetre,  salt,  sulphur,  and  some 
minerals.  There  is  a shop  on  shore  in  which  are  sold 
the  noted  vicuna  rugs.  These  are  brought  down  from 
Bolivia.  The  skins  of  the  guanaco,  much  coarser,  are 
vended  to  unwary  buyers  for  vicunas.  For  several 
years  the  annual  commerce  of  the  port  at  the  maximum 
was  $1,000,000,  but  it  will  grow  rapidly. 

The  railroad  from  Arica  to  Tacna  is  of  the  stand- 
ard gauge  and  39  miles  long.  It  was  among  the  first 
constructed  in  South  America,  the  concession  hav- 
ing been  granted  by  the  Peruvian  government  in 
1851  and  the  line  completed  six  years  later.  The 
aspiration  then  was  to  continue  it  over  the  pampas 
along  the  route  followed  by  the  ancient  highway  of 
the  Incas  and  across  the  igneous  Cordillera  of  Tacora 
to  La  Paz  in  Bolivia.  A waiting  of  half  a century 
was  necessary  before  the  project  could  be  considered 
as  tangible,  but  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty  negotiated 


View  of  Arica 


I 


MAGELLAN  STRAITS 


183 


between  the  Bolivian  and  the  Chilean  governments 
in  October,  1904,  it  approached  realization.  The 
distance  from  Tacna  to  La  Paz  is  about  300  miles, 
but  the  Corocoro  copper  mines,  which  will  furnish 
much  of  the  traffic,  are  60  miles  nearer  to  Tacna. 
The  freight  carried  over  this  route  by  pack  animals 
— mules,  burros,  and  llamas  — of  recent  years  has  not 
exceeded  20,000  tons  annually,  but  in  the  earlier  years 
the  quantity  was  much  larger. 

When  the  railway  from  Tacna  to  Corocoro  and  La 
Paz  is  completed,  the  commercial  importance  of  Arica 
as  a West  Coast  seaport  will  be  greatly  enhanced. 
This  railroad  will  be  an  artery  of  commerce  which 
will  bring  the  heart  of  Bolivia  to  the  Pacific,  for  it  will 
lead  to  and  from  the  most  populous  and  most  pro- 
ductive regions  of  that  country  by  the  shortest  and 
most  direct  route.  The  line  will  be  finished  long  be- 
fore the  Panama  Canal  is  opened,  but  the  result  will 
be  the  same.  Arica  is  2,200  miles  from  Panama,  rela- 
tively 4,200  miles  from  New  York,  and  less  than  3,600 
miles  from  New  Orleans.  To  New  York  around  Cape 
Horn  and  Pernambuco  is  approximately  9,500  miles. 
From  Arica  to  Liverpool  via  Panama  is  6,900 
miles;  by  way  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan  is  10,400 
miles.  Can  a doubt  be  entertained  as  to  the  course 
of  the  commerce  which  will  flow  without  ebb  through 
the  future  great  port  of  Arica  ? 

The  afternoon  on  which  we  left  Arica  we  had  a 
rare  privilege.  It  was  the  sunlit  view  of  the  snow- 
cap  of  the  distant  Mt.  Tacora  in  Bolivia.  The  sum- 
mit is  19,000  feet  above  sea-level.  Though  the  other 
snow-ridges  often  are  seen,  Tacora  rarely  shows  her 
ghostly  face.  In  the  late  afternoon  the  azure  mist 


184 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


gathered  over  the  plain  and  lower  mountain  range ; 
the  shadows  fell  on  the  shell-like  hillsides ; the  sun 
glistened  on  the  chalky,  beetling  bowlders ; the  brown 
cliffs  became  browner;  the  faintest  suggestion  of 
twilight  hovered  for  a moment ; the  snow-caps  dis- 
appeared, and  it  was  night  and  we  were  steaming  out 
of  the  bay. 

From  Arica  south  the  cliffs  rise  from  the  sea  almost 
perpendicularly.  In  the  morning  Pisagua  is  sighted. 
This  is  a centre  of  the  nitrate  industry  and  of  what 
remains  of  the  guano  traffic.  Colonel  North,  the 
hotel-keeper  who  became  the  nitrate  king,  had  his 
beginnings  as  a captain  of  industry  here.  The  moun- 
tains come  down  to  the  sea  in  parallel  ridges.  Pisagua 
is  like  a little  Pennsylvania  mining-town,  except  that  it 
seems  likely  to  slide  into  the  sea.  A fearful  visitation 
of  fire  and  plague  depopulated  it  in  1905. 

Double-header  engines  drawing  short  trains  climb 
the  steep  walls  as  though  they  were  going  up  a ladder. 
After  a time  they  wind  their  way  to  the  nitrate  plains 
and  then  across  the  dreary  desert  to  Iquique.  There 
is  not  much  to  be  seen  on  the  railway  route,  and 
travellers  prefer  to  keep  the  ship  along  the  sheer  cliffs 
till  Iquique  is  sighted  through  the  masts  of  the  sailing- 
vessels  which  are  clustered  in  the  harbor  waiting  for  their 
cargo.  Sometimes  a hundred  of  these  are  gathered. 

There  is  really  no  harbor,  and  scarcely  what  can  be 
called  docks,  for  the  vessels  must  anchor  outside  and 
the  rude  breakwater  is  hardly  more  than  a pretence. 
To  get  ashore  the  reef  has  to  be  crossed  in  a small 
boat.  Upsets  are  frequent,  and  fatalities  are  not  un- 
known. 

Iquique  is  a fragile  city  of  frame  and  corrugated 


MAGELLAN  STRAITS 


185 


iron  buildings.  In  the  plaza  are  a reasonably  tasteful 
monument  and  a pretty  municipal  building.  There 
is  a brown  wooden  church  with  a wooden  effigy  of  the 
crucified  Saviour,  which  is  far  from  attractive  to  look  at. 
The  town  has  a population  of  40,000.  Iquique  has  a 
history  which  surpasses  that  of  the  bonanza  mountain 
towns  of  the  West  in  swiftness,  for  in  the  first  days  of 
the  saltpetre  riches  nothing  was  allowed  to  be  slow. 
It  is  more  staid  and  sedate  now,  but  the  Englishmen 
— younger  sons  and  some  of  the  earlier  generation  — 
do  not  let  life  become  too  dull.  They  are  terrific 
brandy  and  whiskey  drinkers,  showing  a nice  discrimi- 
nation in  not  exhausting  the  wealth  of  the  nitrate 
beds  by  taking  too  much  soda  with  their  brandy. 
There  is  a Country  Club  and  a convenient  cafe  at 
Camache,  just  out  of  the  town  proper.  An  American 
missionary  school  is  maintained  by  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  denomination.  When  I was  in  Iquique, 
besides  the  school  instructors  there  were  only  two 
Americans.  One  was  a mining  prospector,  and  the 
other  was  waiting  for  something  to  turn  up.  But 
North  American  enterprise  was  threatening  to  invade 
the  nitrate  industry. 

The  municipal  administration  of  Iquique  under  the 
Chilean  authorities  is  excellent;  that  is  the  common 
testimony  of  all  foreigners.  The  population  which 
has  to  be  dealt  with  is  a rough  and  ready  one ; the 
nitrate  laborers  are  like  the  miners  in  their  rude  inde- 
pendence, and  the  longshoremen  and  harbor  workers 
are  as  burly  and  aggressive  as  the  same  class  in  the 
United  States. 

In  commercial  importance  Iquique  ranks  with  the 
leading  ports  of  the  Pacific,  all  due  to  the  nitrate 


18G 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


trade.  Its  saltpetre  shipments  about  equal  those  of 
all  the  other  coast  towns,  and  are  valued  at  from 
$2S, 000,000  to  ^30,000,000  annually.  In  a single 
year  the  ships  entering  the  port,  many  of  them  sailing- 
vessels,  aggregate  from  850  to  1,200,  with  a tonnage 
varying  from  1,250,000  to  1,800,000.  As  the  nitrate 
beds  are  being  worked  on  a more  extensive  scale,  it 
is  safe  to  assume  that  almost  any  given  year  in  the 
future  will  disclose  the  presence  of  not  fewer  than 
1,200  vessels  in  the  roadstead.  Since  the  industry  is 
largely  in  British  hands,  the  English  flag  is  by  far  the 
most  common,  though  the  German  ensign  is  seen  with 
growing  frequency. 

It  is  not  probable  that  the  Panama  Canal  will  have 
a marked  influence,  either  beneficial  or  detrimental,  on 
Iquique.  What  nitrate  freight  may  exist  by  the  time 
the  waterway  is  ready  for  traffic  will  be  governed  by 
the  conditions  that  obtain  to-day.  The  saltpetre  fer- 
tilizers form  a bulky  cargo.  Part  of  the  profits  of  the 
ocean  carrying-trade  lies  in  transporting  coal  from 
Australia  or  Newcastle  to  the  Chilean  coast  and  then 
taking  on  the  nitrates.  That  brought  from  England 
scarcely  would  find  it  profitable  to  pay  the  Canal  tolls. 
Nor  would  the  distance  be  shortened  sufficiently  to 
secure  an  advantage  for  the  nitrates  as  return  cargo. 
Their  ocean  route,  in  the  future  as  in  the  past,  is 
through  the  Straits  of  Magellan  or  around  Cape  Horn, 
and  Iquique  remains  an  unimpaired  port  so  long  as 
the  nitrate  beds  are  unexhausted.  Some  shipments 
may  be  through  the  waterway  direct  to  Charleston, 
to  mix  with  the  phosphates  and  thus  fertilize  the 
Southern  cotton  fields. 

At  various  times  projects  have  been  agitated  for 


MAGELLAN  STRAITS 


187 


extending  the  nitrate  railways  in  a manner  to  form  a 
through  line  into  Bolivia,  but  the  preference  given  by 
the  Chilean  government  to  the  Arica  route  seems  to 
end  the  probability  of  such  an  enterprise.  In  view  of 
the  raw  materials  right  at  hand,  it  is  surprising  that 
neither  native  nor  foreign  capital  has  established 
manufactories  of  explosives. 

Twenty-four  hundred  miles  from  Panama,  geograph- 
ically on  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  is  Antofagasta,  a fair 
sort  of  town,  with  regular  streets,  rectangular  ware- 
houses, and  a graveyard  on  the  hillside.  Its  pride  is  the 
plaza,  which  has  been  coaxed  from  unwilling  Nature 
and  made  to  bear  evidences  of  grass  and  trees.  It  is 
the  starting-point  of  the  two-foot  six-inch  gauge  railway 
which  runs  575  miles  up  into  the  interior  of  Bolivia, 
and  brings  the  mining  products  down  to  the  shore. 
The  railway  pays  a 6 per  cent  annual  dividend,  and 
is  said  to  earn  more.  The  gross  receipts  are  about 
^59,000,000  per  year.  Antofagasta  is  a shipping-point 
for  the  nitrates  as  well  as  for  bullion  and  ores.  The 
nitrate  shipments  are  increasing  rapidly,  and  promise 
to  rival  Iquique.  The  harbor  is  a wretched  roadstead. 
To  get  ashore  it  is  necessary  to  brave  a lashing,  dan- 
gerous surf.  The  Chilean  government  is  promising 
extensive  improvements.  They  are  badly  needed. 
When  made,  they  will  enhance  the  commercial  impor- 
tance of  Antofagasta.  The  foreign  vessels  entering 
and  clearing  annually  have  a tonnage  of  1,000,000. 

Antofagasta  is  the  centre  of  the  chief  copper- 
producing  district  of  northern  Chile,  and  also  it  is  the 
outlet  of  Bolivian  tin,  silver,  and  copper.  The  reduc- 
tion works  built  by  the  Huanchaca  Company  of  Bo- 
livia are  located  near  here,  and  a large  quantity  of  the 


188  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


ores  are  transported  to  these  works  to  be  treated.  It 
always  will  be  their  outlet,  but  in  the  future  Antofa- 
gasta will  have  sharper  competition  than  at  present 
with  Arica  and  Mollendo,  as  the  shipping-port  of 
Bolivian  products.  The  Canal  will  be  of  some  bene- 
fit in  lessening  ocean  freights,  more  particularly  for 
the  general  merchandise  imported. 

Below  Antofagasta  is  Taltal,  a passably  well-sheltered 
nitrate  shipping-port.  Then  the  coast  toward  Chana- 
ral  begins  to  vary ; the  mountains  are  lower,  more 
broken  and  jagged,  with  more  cross  ranges.  Chanaral 
has  copper-smelting  works. 

Caldera  is  a small  town,  with  substantial  warehouses, 
fronting  on  a big,  fine  bay.  It  has  a Panama  potency, 
for  it  is  the  beginning  of  the  Copiapo  Railway  that  in 
time  will  cross  the  Andes  and  make  the  plains  of  north- 
western Argentina  tributary  to  the  Pacific.  This  trans- 
Andine  route  was  the  dream  of  William  Wheelright, 
the  Yankee  pioneer  railroader  of  Chile  and  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  often  called  the  father  of  public  works 
in  South  America.  The  passes  are  low  and  easily 
traversed,  as  compared  with  those  farther  south.  The 
gradual  extension  of  population  in  the  northwestern 
provinces  of  Argentina,  the  increase  in  the  areas 
under  cultivation,  are  followed  — or,  better  said,  are 
preceded  — by  railroad  extensions.  A few  years  will 
bring  her  lines  to  the  boundary  of  the  Andes.  In 
the  meantime  the  Chilean  government  is  encouraging 
the  prolongation  of  the  railway  from  Copiapo  to  the 
dividing  line  of  the  Cordilleras.  The  time  cannot  be 
far  distant  when  Tucuman,  the  railway  cross-roads  of 
northern  Argentina,  will  have  rail  communication  with 
the  West  Coast  at  Caldera,  and  an  extensive  district 


MAGELLAN  STRAITS 


189 


will  be  weighing  the  comparative  advantages  of  the 
Atlantic  transport  and  the  Pacific  and  Panama  trans- 
port for  its  agricultural  products  and  the  merchandise 
brought  to  the  people  who  grow  those  products  for 
export. 

Coquimbo  is  a port  of  considerable  importance. 
From  the  sea  it  is  attractive.  One  main  street  extends 
along  the  water  front,  while  the  others  branch  off  up 
the  hill  at  right  angles.  There  is  the  cemetery,  some- 
what suggestively  prominent.  A neat  frame  dwelling 
in  the  seaside,  peak-roofed  style,  hollowed  out  of  the 
hillside,  and  surrounded  by  needle-pointed  pine  trees, 
secures  attention.  Coquimbo  ships  large  quantities  of 
manganese  and  copper,  and  formerly  a British  coaling- 
station  was  maintained. 

We  arrived  in  Valparaiso  one  morning  late  in  May. 
The  American  woman  whose  home  it  was,  had  prom- 
ised we  should  see  another  Bay  of  Naples.  The  fogs 
lifted  slowly.  They  showed  apparently  a city  afloat, 
for  the  vessel  masts  were  first  visible  and  then  the  port 
proper,  which  seemed  to  lie  flat  to  the  sea.  Later  the 
skies  were  sapphire,  yet  it  was  not  Naples.  That 
morning  there  was  a celebration  in  honor  of  the  arri- 
val of  the  Brazilian  warship  Almirante  BarrosOy  and  the 
bay  was  alive  with  small  craft  and  stately  ships,  while 
the  people  swarmed  over  the  heights  and  along  the 
shore  like  ants. 

Valparaiso  (vale  of  Paradise)  is  the  largest  place  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  with  the  exception  of  San  Francisco, 
and  it  is  equally  as  fine  a metropolis.  Its  population 
is  140,000.  The  city  lies  at  the  foot  of  high  hills, 
which  no  one  climbs  because  there  are  ascensors,  or 
elevators,  as  in  Pittsburg  and  Quebec.  Unhappily  it 


190 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


has  not  a golden  gate  and  a sheltered  harbor.  The 
finest  part  of  the  city  is  the  Avenida,  or  Avenue  Brazil, 
at  once  shaded  boulevard,  business  thoroughfare,  and 
promenade. 

The  city  has  many  fine  business  blocks  of  modern 
construction,  and  the  government  buildings  are  unusu- 
ally tastefial  and  harmonious.  All  bear  the  impress 
of  Italian  architecture.  The  commemorative  spirit 
finds  expression  in  a group  celebrating  the  heroism  of 
Arturo  Prat,  the  young  naval  commander  who  gained 
unfading  laurels  in  the  war  with  Peru.  On  the  Avenue 
Brazil  is  a bust  of  William  Wheelright,  the  son  of 
Massachusetts,  who  provided  steam  navigation  as  well 
as  built  railways  for  Chile.  There  is  also  a statue  to 
Lord  Cochrane,  the  Scotchman  who  took  command 
of  the  Chilean  fleet  in  the  contest  for  freedom  from 
Spain  and  helped  to  bring  victory.  It  cannot  be  said 
that  Chile  is  unmindful  of  the  strangers  who  have 
served  her,  whether  in  arms  or  in  peaceful  progress. 

The  port,  as  is  natural,  is  cosmopolitan.  The 
German  colony  is  largest,  and  after  that  the  Italians  in 
numbers,  though  in  influence  they  are  hardly  so  strong 
as  either  the  English  or  the  French.  The  French 
community  is  self-contained  and  is  an  important  factor 
in  commerce.  The  Britishers,  chiefly  from  Scotland, 
are  in  everything  except  retail  trade.  Though  the 
English  language  is  common,  Valparaiso  is  the  one 
city  in  South  America  in  which  I heard  German 
spoken  oftener. 

The  shipping  of  Valparaiso  is  vast  and  varied,  a 
floating  panorama  of  many  nations,  like  a miniature 
Hamburg.  The  English  lines  maintain  a regular 
fortnightly  service  of  cargo  and  passenger  vessels,  and 


Scene  in  the  Harbor  of  Valparaiso,  showing  the  Arturo  Prat  Statue 


MAGELLAN  STRAITS 


191 


also  a special  service  of  cargo  vessels  to  Liverpool. 
The  steamers  are  of  5,000  tons  and  upward.  The 
distance  to  Liverpool  by  way  of  the  Straits  is  9,500  to 
9,800  miles,  and  the  sailing  schedule  is  35  days.  The 
vessels  touch  alternately  at  the  Falkland  Islands, 
both  for  mail  and  for  the  cargo  of  wool.  They  coal 
at  Montevideo,  Rio  Janeiro,  and  in  the  Madeiras. 
They  bring  out  to  Valparaiso  general  merchandise, 
and  they  take  away  products  of  the  country. 

The  Bay  of  Valparaiso  is  a discouraging  one.  It  is 
surprising  that  so  extensive  a commerce  can  be  handled 
with  such  poor  facilities.  The  shipping  approximates 
1,000,000  tons  yearly.  The  engineering  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  creating  a real  harbor  are  well  understood, 
though  not  easily  overcome.  The  rains  wash  the 
hills  down  into  the  sea,  but  the  detritus,  or  silt,  does 
not  fill  in  what  seems  to  be  the  bottomless  bed  of 
the  ocean,  so  profound  is  it.  There  is  no  breakwater. 

At  the  beginning  of  every  Winter  season  the  ques- 
tion is  raised,  — what  will  be  the  harvest  of  disaster? 
It  seems  incredible  that  vessels  of  3,000  tons  could  be 
lost  in  this  bay,  but  that  is  what  has  happened.  In 
May,  1903,  voyaging  down  the  coast  in  the  Tucapel, 
we  were  told  that  the  Arequipa  of  3,000  tons  burden 
was  the  next  ship  following  us.  She  arrived  two  or 
three  days  later,  and  took  on  passengers  and  cargo  for 
the  return  trip.  One  night  a savage  tempest  arose, 
many  of  the  smaller  vessels  were  wrecked,  and  the 
Arequipa  foundered  and  went  down  with  the  loss  of  a 
hundred  lives.  Two  weeks  later  from  my  hotel 
window  I watched  the  wild  bay  and  waited  three  days 
for  a chance  to  get  off  on  the  Oropesa,  one  of  the  big 
ships  which  run  between  Valparaiso  and  Liverpool. 


192  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


Smoke  from  the  funnels  showed  that  the  large  vessels 
were  keeping  steam  up,  and  they  frequently  steamed 
out  into  the  open  to  avoid  the  dangers  of  the  harbor. 
This  storm  was  a norther  which  came  in  a circular 
path  from  the  south.  The  immense  floating  docks 
tossed  about  as  if  they  were  eggshells ; the  buoys 
bobbed  like  dancing  water-sprites ; the  schooners 
plunged  their  noses  into  the  angry  breakers  until  the 
mastheads  dipped ; again  the  masts  and  yardarms 
would  be  as  a stripped  forest  in  Winter  bending  before 
the  blasts.  And  the  wreckage  of  the  hurricane  of  a 
fortnight  earlier  was  still  visible, — two  big  schooners 
driven  hard  against  the  rocks,  their  masts  under 
water. 

In  July,  1904,  another  destructive  storm  swept 
along  the  coast.  The  lower  part  of  the  city  was  com- 
pletely covered  with  mud  and  water,  the  sea-wall  was 
destroyed,  and  the  railroad  badly  damaged.  The  loss 
of  life  was  not  great,  but  the  destruction  of  property 
was  serious. 

In  the  period  from  1823  to  1893  the  shipping  sta- 
tistics show  the  loss  of  378  water-craft  in  the  Bay  of 
Valparaiso,  of  which  100  were  rowing  and  sailing 
boats.  The  money  value  was  incalculable. 

The  Chilean  government  after  many  discourage- 
ments accepted  the  plans  of  Mr.  Jacob  Kraus,  the 
Holland  engineer,  for  conquering  the  difficulties  which 
Nature  had  placed  in  the  way  of  making  Valparaiso 
Bay  hospitable  instead  of  hostile  to  the  ships  that 
bear  the  commerce  of  many  seas.  The  estimated  cost 
of  the  harbor  improvement  is  ^15,000,000  gold, 
though  the  initial  provision  was  for  1,000,000.  The 
scheme  contemplates  the  construction  of  a series  of 


MAGELLAN  STRAITS 


193 


sea-walls  in  the  bay.  The  water  is  so  deep  that  it  is 
considered  impracticable  to  build  a single  breakwater 
across  the  mouth  of  the  harbor.  It  is  believed  that 
the  several  sea-walls  constructed  in  the  manner  pro- 
posed will  protect  the  vessels  and  the  merchandise 
from  the  terrific  seas  which  drive  in  during  the  storms 
of  the  Winter  months.  A dry  dock  is  included  in  the 
proposition.  The  calculation  is  that  the  shipping  of 
the  port  will  be  benefited  annually  to  the  extent 
of  ^1,250,000  and  upward  by  the  projected  improve- 
ments. The  Chilean  Congress  approved  the  Kraus 
plans  at  the  Autumn  session  of  1904. 

These  harbor  improvements  will  lay  some  addi- 
tional charges  on  maritime  commerce,  but  they  can  be 
borne  in  view  of  the  increased  security  and  the  better 
facilities.  If  the  Panama  Canal  were  likely  to  impair 
the  commercial  prestige  of  Valparaiso,  they  would 
serve  as  a means  of  retaining  it.  Not  improbably  the 
Congress  had  this  contingency  in  mind  when  sanction 
was  given  the  government  projects  for  making  the 
dangerous  bay  a safe  shelter.  The  only  loss  from 
vessels  which  will  pass  through  the  Canal  instead  of 
making  the  voyage  through  the  Straits  or  around 
Cape  Horn,  touching  at  Chilean  ports,  will  be  in 
coaling  them  and  providing  other  supplies.  This  is 
not  an  important  factor  in  Valparaiso’s  trade.  The 
imports  and  exports  of  the  port  are  based  on  the 
products  and  the  wants  of  the  country.  Its  maritime 
movement,  which  is  estimated  at  3,000,000  tons  annu- 
ally, is  measured  by  the  facilities  provided  for  this 
foreign  commerce. 

Trade  with  the  United  States  grows  regularly,  and 
agricultural  implements  and  mineral  oils,  which  are 

13 


194 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


among  the  chief  imports,  will  pay  the  Canal  tolls  and 
still  have  cheaper  ocean  transport  from  New  York  or 
New  Orleans  than  down  the  Atlantic  and  up  the 
Pacific.  It  is  not  an  unreasonable  assumption  that 
for  a proportionate  share  of  the  merchandise  imported 
from  Great  Britain  9,500  miles’  water  carriage  from 
Liverpool  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan  may  be 
offset  by  7,800  miles  via  Panama  plus  the  Canal  tolls 
and  other  commercial  considerations.  The  same  holds 
true  of  Hamburg  and  the  trade  with  Germany. . 

On  two  visits  to  Valparaiso  I found  that  the  ship- 
ping interests  were  not  worrying  over  a dimly  pro- 
spective loss  of  commerce  through  the  construction  of 
an  isthmian  waterway.  Instead  they  were  looking 
forward  to  it  as  an  incentive  to  making  the  bay  a gen- 
uine harbor,  and  as  a stimulus  to  closer  trade  relations 
with  the  United  States.  That  appears  to  be  a sound 
interpretation  of  the  economic  relation  of  the  Panama 
Canal  to  the  port  of  Valparaiso. 

After  leaving  Valparaiso  one  feels  the  pertinence  of 
the  suggestion  that  far  enough  south  the  Pacific  is  not 
always  pacific.  The  sea  is  not  excessively  rough,  yet 
it  heaves  and  rolls  uncomfortably.  The  tops  of  the 
Cordilleras,  covered  with  snow,  are  very  clear  in  the 
bright  sunlight.  At  Lota  there  are  trees  and  Winter 
vegetation  on  the  high  hills.  Lota  and  Coronel  are 
really  twin  ports.  They  both  lie  alongside  the  great 
vein  of  coal  and  copper,  and  are  coaling-stations  for 
the  vessels.  Most  of  the  steamers  come  down  to  Lota 
for  the  fuel  which  will  be  needed  in  returning  to  Pan- 
ama, while  those  passing  through  the  Straits  of  Magel- 
lan or  around  Cape  Horn  take  on  enough  to  serve 
them  to  Montevideo.  It  crops  out  of  the  hillside  and 


View  of  Talcahuano 


MAGELLAN  STRAITS 


195 


is  mined  in  primitive  and  inexpensive  manner.  The 
copper  mining  is  also  primitive. 

Lota  has  a good  bay,  but  hardly  a harbor.  The 
town  is  not  a bad  one.  Its  main  street  is  well  paved. 
It  has  an  attractive  plaza,  a club,  a shabby  church,  a 
fundicion^  or  copper-smelting  works  in  which  old  pro- 
cesses are  used,  and  pottery  and  brick  factories.  It  is 
also  noted  for  the  coal  tunnel  under  the  sea.  Until 
they  were  turned  into  a stock  company.  Lota  and 
Coronel  were  the  property  of  the  Cousino  family,  and 
the  company  is  still  controlled  by  that  family.  The 
widow  Cousino  at  one  time  was  the  richest  woman  in 
the  world.  Cousino  Park  at  Lota  is  the  pride  of  Chile. 
It  is  bizarre,  and  blends  English  and  French  landscape 
gardening  with  some  original  ideas  of  Nature  improved 
and  unimproved.  There  is  a French  chateau  on  the 
hill,  and  there  are  ravines,  grottoes,  fountains,  statuary, 
artificial  lakes,  arbors,  terraces,  flower  gardens,  and  a 
small  zoo.  A lighthouse  in  the  corner  commanding 
the  sea  has  a history.  It  was  brought  from  Paita  in 
Peru  as  the  spoil  of  war. 

Indian  faces  are  numerous  in  Lota.  They  are 
the  strongest  type  I have  seen,  and  are  of  the  uncon- 
querable Araucanian  stock.  These  Indians  and  half- 
Indians,  besides  being  engaged  in  fishing  and  water 
traffic,  are  mingled  with  Europeans  as  mine-workers. 
It  is  a half-savage  mining  population,  among  which 
strikes,  bloodshed,  and  murder  are  not  unknown. 

For  those  who  wish  to  visit  the  Chilean  Annapolis, 
the  train  may  be  taken  from  Coronel  to  Concepcion, 
and  then  to  Talcahuano,  which  is  the  naval  port.  The 
journey  does  not  occupy  more  than  an  hour.  The 
Chileans  have  a patriotic  pride  in  this  naval  school. 


196  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


Talcahuano  is  a principal  port  and  has  much  shipping. 
It  is  about  the  only  good  harbor  on  the  Chilean  coast. 

Concepcion,  after  Santiago  and  Valparaiso,  is  the 
largest  city  in  Chile,  and  has  a decided  importance  as 
the  outlet  for  the  great  central  valley.  Many  passen- 
gers come  by  the  railway  from  Santiago  through  the 
central  valley  to  Concepcion,  and  take  the  ship  at 
either  embarkation.  The  English  and  the  Germans 
divide  the  foreign  trade,  which  is  large  and  profitable. 

Continuing  down  the  coast  on  a voyage  on  the 
Oropesa,  we  passed  the  briefest  day  of  the  year, 
June  21,  out  of  sight  of  land.  The  day  was  clear  and 
cold.  The  seas  were  very  heavy.  At  sunset  the 
navigating  officer  told  us  we  were  in  south  latitude 
41°.  The  Milky  Way  never  seemed  so  luminous, 
nor  the  evening  star,  set  in  the  dark  southern  sky, 
so  bright.  The  following  day  was  alternate  rain  and 
shine,  with  just  a sight  of  the  Chiloe  Archipelago 
through  the  mists.  Few  of  the  vessels  now  take  the 
more  picturesque  route  into  the  archipelago  and 
through  Smythe’s  Channel.  The  wrecks  have  be- 
come too  common. 

Heavier  seas  were  encountered  in  the  afternoon  and 
at  night.  What  a night ! The  Oropesa^  a ship  of 
7,000  tons,  was  pounded  as  with  an  anvil,  tossed  like 
a chip,  knocked,  hammered,  slammed  and  banged 
about,  chased  by  huge  seas  astern,  struck  obliquely 
by  mountain  waves,  caught  horizontally  and  spun 
around  like  a top.  First  she  went  at  half  speed  and 
then  at  quarter  speed,  but  with  plenty  of  sea-room  no 
one  worried. 

The  next  morning  at  daybreak  the  lighthouse  which 
marks  the  Evangelist  Islands  was  sighted.  The  name. 


MAGELLAN  STRAITS 


197 


Islands  of  Direction,  which  is  sometimes  given  them, 
is  a better  description.  They  fix  the  entrance  into 
the  Straits  of  Magellan.  They  are  four  rocky  heaps, 
— Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  and  John.  After  they  are 
sighted  the  rough  seas  become  gentler,  and  the  ocean 
is  like  a rolling,  gently  swelling  prairie.  A knob  of 
brown  earth  is  seen.  It  is  Cape  Pillar.  The  gray 
clouds  change  into  violet  and  purple,  a blinding  snow- 
storm of  three  hours  follows  ; then  the  sun  lifts  a little, 
and  discloses  on  the  right  Desolation  Islands  and  the 
great  snow  fields.  By  mid-day  the  land  on  either  side 
is  quite  close.  The  channel  does  not  appear  to  be 
more  than  a quarter  of  a mile  across.  There  is  some 
brush,  but  no  trees.  The  blue  glaciers  of  which  we 
have  read  are  not  blue,  but  are  white  against  the  water- 
green  sky.  In  the  afternoon  a gauze  spreads  over 
the  glaciers  like  a veil  of  mist,  and  they  are  blue. 

A look  astern  shows  that  we  are  passing  through 
the  narrowing  neck  of  a long  channel  with  snowy 
crags  and  slopes  on  either  side.  We  are  in  south 
latitude  54°,  no  twilight,  a black  night,  not  a star 
visible,  the  water  not  to  be  seen  from  the  lower  deck, 
the  ship  groping  for  anchorage  like  a blind  fisherman. 
“Two  hundred  sixty  fathoms,  no;  thirty-six  fathoms, 
yes.”  We  have  conquered  the  treacherous  currents, 
have  turned  the  dangerous  elbow  corners,  and  learn 
that  we  anchor  for  the  rest  of  this  black  night  off 
Cape  Coventry.  I thought  of  Ferdinand  Magellan  and 
his  sail-ships  threading  those  unknown  channels  nearly 
four  centuries  ago. 

We  are  under  way  at  four  o’clock  in  the  morning,  and 
come  out  on  deck  to  find  the  sun  hooded  and  cloaked 
in  the  snow  clouds.  It  clears  later,  showing  the 


198 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


straits  much  broader  and  the  hills  on  either  side  lower 
but  still  under  a white  mantle.  We  round  Cape 
Froward,  latitude  53°  54',  at  times  losing  sight  of 
Tierra  del  Fuego.  We  get  a sight  of  Punta  Arenas, 
the  most  southerly  town  on  the  American  Continent 
or  on  any  continent,  1,600  miles  farther  south  than 
Cape  Town,  900  miles  nearer  to  the  South  Pole  than 
Christ  Church,  New  Zealand.  It  is  the  world’s  cross- 
roads for  ocean  travel. 

The  first  view  is  of  wide  streets  running  back  to 
forest-clad  hills  which  are  almost  lost  in  the  snow 
clouds.  Everything  about  the  town  is  brisk  and 
bright.  Ashore  the  snow  crunches  under  our  feet, 
and  we  have  the  buoyant  feeling  of  the  Hudson’s  Bay 
trapper.  There  is  a Chilean  cruiser  in  the  bay,  and 
German,  English,  French,  and  Spanish  ships.  Even 
rarer  is  one  bearing  the  American  flag.  There  are 
hotels,  gasthauses,  posadas,  and  other  signs  which  tell 
in  many  languages  of  sailors’  lodging-houses.  The 
mingling  of  many  tongues  is  also  heard,  for  the  sailors 
are  ashore. 

Punta  Arenas  has  very  good  wharves  and  ware- 
houses, substantial  bank  buildings,  some  private  resi- 
dences that  look  like  Swiss  chalets,  and  a somewhat 
pretentious  plaza  in  which  on  this  day  the  fountain 
has  become  a beautiful  ice  crystal.  The  town  also 
has  sailors’  bar-rooms.  There  is  a new  church,  and  a 
few  vacant  lots  are  left  in  the  business  section.  A 
troop  of  urchins  come  chattering  from  school,  leap 
into  the  snow-drift,  and  pelt  the  passers-by,  the  uni- 
versal privilege  of  boyhood.  Though  it  is  Winter 
the  women  are  bareheaded,  or  most  of  them  are,  and 
the  black  alpaca  shawls  thrown  carelessly  over  their 


Scenes  at  the  Straits  of  Magellan 
Cape  Pillar  — The  Evangelist  Islands  — Cape  Froward 


MAGELLAN  STRAITS 


199 


shoulders  do  not  indicate  that  the  cold  is  penetrating. 
The  men  wear  vicuna  robes  like  blankets,  or  many  of 
them  have  the  skins  made  up  into  overcoats.  The 
steamer  has  brought  the  fortnightly  mail,  and  every 
one  gathers  at  the  post-office  waiting  for  letters.  The 
talk  is  of  new  sheep  companies  and  gold  washings  in 
Tierra  del  Fuego. 

Punta  Arenas  has  no  custom  house.  It  is  a free 
port,  — a very  wise  policy  considering  that  its  trade  is 
of  an  international  character,  selling  to  the  passing  ships 
and  buying  from  them  only  such  articles  as  are  needed 
for  local  consumption.  The  commercial  movement 
reaches  $2,250,000  per  year,  the  exports  exceeding  the 
imports  by  $250,000.  The  export  commerce  is  of 
wool,  hides,  tallow,  ostrich  feathers,  foxskins,  guanaco 
and  vicuna  rugs.  The  imports  are  alcohol  for  the 
Patagonian  Indians,  cereals,  and  general  merchandise. 
The  best  fur  store  is  kept  by  a Russian  woman.  The 
town  is  the  seat  of  the  territorial  government  of 
Magellans,  and  is  the  official  residence  of  the  Governor. 
There  is  also  an  army  barracks  and  a weather  bureau 
office.  It  is  a station  of  the  Chilean  navy,  which  has 
rendered  much  service  to  navigation  in  the  hydro- 
graphic  work  of  the  Straits.  Punta  Arenas  has  its  daily 
newspaper,  filled  with  shipping  intelligence  and  con- 
taining cable  news  which  is  transmitted  by  land  wire 
from  Buenos  Ayres.  Wireless  telegraphy  finds  it  a 
convenient  station. 

Punta  Arenas  thinks  it  has  a cloud  on  its  future. 
This  is  the  Panama  Canal.  It  now  is  an  important 
coaling-station,  the  coal  being  brought  both  from 
Australia  and  from  Newcastle,  and  it  has  a good 
business  in  supplying  passing  vessels.  Some  of  this 


200 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


trade  will  be  lost  when  the  Hamburg  and  the  New 
York  ships  which  follow  this  route  to  San  Francisco 
are  able  to  take  the  shorter  course  through  the  water- 
way. But  by  that  time  the  improvements  which  the 
Chilean  government  is  making  in  the  navigation  of  the 
Straits,  and  the  natural  development  of  trade  in  the  far 
southern  regions  will  have  more  than  compensated  for 
the  diminution  from  the  diversion  of  the  through  ocean 
traffic  to  other  channels.  As  the  centre  of  the  sheep 
industry  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  and  of  the  Chilean  main- 
land, the  southernmost  town  has  a stable  future. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

LIFE  IN  THE  CHILEAN  CAPITAL 

Railway  along  Aconcagua  River  V Aley  — Project  of  Wheelright^ 
the  Yankee  — Santiago's  Craggy  Height  of  Santa  Lucia  — A 
Walk  along  the  Alameda  — Historic  and  Other  Statues  — 
The  Capital  a Fanlike  City  — Public  Edifices  — Dwellings 
of  the  Poor  — Impression  of  the  People  at  the  Celebration  of 
Corpus  Christi  — Some  Notes  on  the  Climate  — Habits  and 
Customs  — “ The  Morning  for  Sleep  " — Independence  of 
Chilean  Women  — Sunday  for  Society  — Fondness  for  Athletic 
Sports  — Newspapers  an  Institution  of  the  Country. 

IN  places  the  river  Aconcagua  is  like  the  Platte  of 
Nebraska,  which  is  famous  for  spreading  out  so 
that  it  is  all  bed  and  no  depth.  Yet  the  stream  is 
more  picturesque  than  the  flat  top  of  Mt.  Aconcagua, 
22,425  feet  high,  for  the  monarch  of  the  snow-covered 
Cordilleras  lacks  the  majesty  of  the  apex  peaks,  which 
are  2,000  or  3,000  feet  lower.  The  railroad  creeps 
along  the  valley  from  Valparaiso,  cuts  across  the 
ravines  and  transverse  spurs  into  a narrow  pass,  fol- 
lowing the  watercourse  and  clinging  to  the  mountain- 
side like  the  rim  of  a wheel.  The  vegetation  is  both 
temperate  and  tropical.  In  making  the  journey  on 
a June  day  I passed  from  the  balminess  of  perpetual 
Spring  to  the  chill  of  Winter,  but  Nature  was  not  stern 
and  there  was  no  bleakness.  A little  back  from  the 
seacoast  were  short  and  stocky  palms,  fields  carpeted 
with  yellow  cowslips,  milk-white  nut  trees,  green  wil- 
lows, silver  poplars,  young  apple  orchards  side  by 


202  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 

side  with  orange  groves,  firs,  and  the  taller  forest 
trees. 

After  the  main  valley  is  left  and  the  gorge  entered,  it 
is  a steady,  curved  climb  to  Llai-Llai.  The  place  is 
an  eating-station,  and  a very  good  one  too.  The  name 
is  Indian  and  not  Welsh.  Though  it  was  midwinter, 
the  breath  of  the  tropics  lingered  and  the  dews  had 
freshened  the  vines  and  trees.  The  railway  splits  at 
this  point,  one  branch  going  south  to  Santiago  and 
another  straight  on  to  Los  Andes,  where  the  mule- 
path  leads  across  the  cumbre,  or  summit,  but  where 
in  a few  years  the  big  spiral  tunnel  will  complete 
the  through  rail  connection  via  the  Uspallata  Pass 
between  Valparaiso  and  Buenos  Ayres.  In  this  region 
I had  glimpses  of  vineyards,  of  pretty  farms,  and  of 
pasturing  cattle  and  sheep.  The  valley  below  is  an 
agricultural  Arcadia.  Coming  out  of  the  gorge  in  the 
wildest  part,  the  beauties  of  the  scenery  were  tempo- 
rarily lost,  for  a big,  staring  coffin  sign  greeted  my  eye. 
Sometimes  the  Chileans  call  themselves  the  English 
of  South  America;  sometimes  the  Yankees.  The 
advertiser’s  art  here  is  both  English  and  Yankee  — it 
stops  at  nothing. 

But  the  snow-peaks,  the  overhanging  vaporous 
milky  masses  on  the  summit,  and  the  darker  purple 
masses  on  the  mountain-sides,  make  it  possible  to  for- 
get the  coffin  man  and  his  wares,  though  his  sign  at 
first  jars  the  aesthetic  sensibilities  so  disagreeably. 

Railroad  travel  is  comfortable  on  the  line  from 
Valparaiso  to  the  capital.  There  are  Pullman  cars 
and  other  conveniences.  But  though  it  is  midwinter, 
the  cars  are  not  heated.  Every  one  unrolls  blankets 
and  robes.  The  women  settle  back  to  a nap  or  a 


Scene  on  the  Aconcagua  River 


’■fsM 


LIFE  IN  THE  CHILEAN  CAPITAL  203 


little  gossip.  The  men  light  their  cigars,  and  between 
the  intervals  of  newspaper  reading,  talk  politics  and 
the  weather.  Two  or  three  peruse  French  novels. 
The  five  hours  consumed  in  the  journey  pass  quickly. 

This  railroad  was  projected  by  William  Wheel- 
right.  The  opposition  the  enterprise  met  in  the 
Chilean  Congress  reads  like  a chapter  of  George 
Stephenson’s  struggles  with  the  English  Parliament. 
Wheelright  carried  the  line  as  far  as  Llai-Llai. 
Then  came  a long  wait,  till  Henry  Meiggs  arrived  in 
the  first  flush  of  his  exile,  and  with  his  extraordinary 
mental  activities  thirsting  for  a field  for  their  employ- 
ment. For  ten  years  the  government  had  been  de- 
ciding to  have  the  remaining  sections  of  the  railway 
completed  “to-morrow.”  It  was  in  i86i  that  they 
made  the  contract.  They  had  no  idea  of  quick  work. 
Meiggs,  shrewd  California  Yankee,  got  a clause  in- 
serted giving  a premium  if  Section  A should  be  fin- 
ished within  one  year  instead  of  three  years,  and  so 
forth.  Then  he  built  the  railroad  in  the  shortest 
period  and  collected  the  largest  premium.  The  au- 
thorities, wondering,  paid,  but  allowed  no  rush  clauses 
in  subsequent  contracts. 

Few  big  cities  can  boast  the  possession  of  a craggy 
mountain.  Santiago  has  such  a treasure  in  Santa 
Lucia,  an  alluvial  outcropping,  isolated,  and  appar- 
ently not  kin  to  the  granite  spur  of  San  Cristobal 
near  by.  After  waiting  many  years,  the  municipality 
converted  it  from  a sterile  mass  of  rugged  rock  into 
a park  with  drives  and  gardens,  serpentine  paths,  stat- 
ues, terraces,  parapets,  bowers,  grottoes,  basins,  cas- 
cades, and  aquariums.  There  is  a statue  to  Pedro 
Valdivia,  the  first  of  the  Spanish  conquerors,  whose 


204 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


conquering  career  was  ended  by  the  unconquerable 
Araucanians,  and  a chapel  and  monument  to  the 
public-spirited  Archbishop  Vicuna.  A theatre,  a cafe^ 
and  some  other  structures  also  have  been  erected. 
Their  value  in  beautifying  the  mountain  is  not  great, 
yet  art  and  advertising  have  not  been  allowed  alto- 
gether to  spoil  Nature. 

Santa  Lucia  Is  Santiago’s  crown  jewel,  her  Kohi- 
noor.  Every  day  during  my  stay  I went  to  walk 
there,  often  through  the  clouds,  but  always  with  a 
freshened  sense  of  enjoyment.  The  approach  is  like 
Chapultepec  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  but  this  isolated 
mountain  mass,  while  less  extensive,  is  more  domi- 
nating than  Mexico’s  pride.  Though  it  does  not 
afford  the  splendid  sight  of  two  volcanic  snow-clad 
peaks,  as  Chapultepec  does  in  the  vista  of  Popo- 
catepetl and  Ixtaccihuatl,  yet  the  circular  snow  profile 
of  the  Andes  through  the  violet  mist  is  an  always 
pleasing  vision. 

A morning  or  an  evening  stroll  along  the  Alameda 
de  las  Delicias  — Delicious  Walk,  in  English  — shows 
much  of  Chilean  life.  It  is  a shaded  avenue  with  a 
central  paseo,  or  walk,  a roadway  on  either  side  be- 
tween rows  of  poplar  trees, — the  roadway  being  given 
over  to  the  trolley  cars,  and  then  the  main  thorough- 
fares which  form  the  street.  There  are  some  hand- 
some residences  and  many  commonplace  ones.  The 
stores  are  not  fine.  The  Alameda  is  too  long  (three 
miles)  and  too  broad  for  trade,  and  the  shopping  dis- 
trict locates  itself  elsewhere. 

Chilean  patriotism  Is  rampant  on  the  Alameda, 
though  it  is  not  always  artistic.  The  avenue  has 
statues  to  O’ Higgins  and  other  national  heroes,  with 


LIFE  IN  THE  CHILEAN  CAPITAL  205 


groups  commemorative  of  incidents  in  the  war  for 
independence.  A statue  has  been  erected  to  the  in- 
ternational hero,  San  Martin,  the  Argentine  chieftain 
who  led  the  allied  armies  of  the  patriots  to  victory 
against  Spain.  An  unambitious  monument  to  Buenos 
Ayres  typifies  the  completion  of  the  telegraph  line 
between  Chile  and  the  Argentine  Republic  across  the 
Andes  in  1865. 

While  many  of  the  groups  on  the  Alameda  com- 
memorate war  heroes  and  war  incidents,  peace  also 
is  recognized.  There  is  a statue  to  Benjamin  Victor 
MacKenna,  the  historian,  with  the  inscription  that 
the  heroes  thus  pay  tribute  to  the  chronicler  of  their 
prowess.  He  was  defeated  for  the  Presidency  by  a 
soldier.  I like  even  better  the  memorial  to  Father 
Molina,  the  Jesuit  naturalist,  who  rendered  distin- 
guished service  to  science.  It  is  an  obscure  little 
statue,  yet  it  shows  that  the  warlike  nation  has 
thoughts  of  the  sacrifices  and  the  achievements  of 
science  as  well  as  of  arms. 

Santiago  is  an  ancient  capital,  for  when  the  Boston 
tea  party  was  held,  its  population  was  larger  than  that 
of  either  Boston  or  Philadelphia.  With  its  suburbs 
included,  it  numbers  about  300,000  inhabitants.  It 
was  laid  out  by  the  old  Spanish  town-makers  with  the 
customary  regularity  of  streets  and  plazas,  but  not  in 
the  usual  checkerboard  form.  The  Alameda  and  the 
Mapocho  River  form  a triangle  which  encloses  the 
most  densely  populated  sections  like  a fan,  so  that 
the  east  and  west  streets  are  not  parallel.  Santa  Lucia 
is  at  the  vertex  or  the  rivet.  The  fan  opens  from  the 
Alameda,  and  spreads  over  Cousino  Park,  the  race- 
track, and  various  public  institutions. 


206 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


The  principal  square  is  the  Plaza  of  Arms,  one  cor- 
ner of  which  is  occupied  by  the  Cathedral.  Nothing 
about  the  Cathedral  is  especial,  nor  are  the  churches 
themselves  particularly  striking,  for  they  are  not  me- 
dlaevally  ecclesiastical.  Some  of  them  are  Florentine. 
Santiago  as  a whole  has  less  of  the  typical  Spanish 
architectural  appearance  than  any  other  large  city  in 
South  America.  The  business  blocks  are  substantial 
structures  of  two  and  three  stories,  with  many  arcades 
and  portals.  The  private  residences  have  fronts  with 
many  facades,  and  are  quite  ornate.  The  patios^  or 
courts,  within  are  paved  with  variegated  tiles.  The 
glimpses  of  the  fountains  and  of  green  trees  and  yel- 
low oranges  afford  a pleasing  picture  to  the  stranger. 
He  longs  to  enter  and  be  at  home  in  these  secluded 
orange  groves,  set,  as  they  are,  in  the  amphitheatre 
of  the  snow-covered  Cordilleras. 

Some  of  the  public  edifices  are  comparatively  new, 
while  many  are  of  the  Spanish  and  colonial  epoch. 
The  Moneda,  or  Government  Building,  belongs  to  the 
latter  class.  It  is  rambling  and  old,  with  no  exterior 
pretensions,  but  with  many  courts,  circular  balconies, 
and  grilled  windows.  The  President  occupies  a smaller 
house  for  his  residence.  The  Congress  building  is  new, 
and  is  of  the  architecture  of  the  Renaissance.  It  Is  on 
the  site  of  the  Jesuit  Church  that  was  burned  in  1863, 
— one  of  the  world’s  holocausts,  in  which  2,300  per- 
sons lost  their  lives.  In  front  of  the  Supreme  Court 
building  is  a statue  to  Andre  Bello,  the  author  of 
the  Chilean  Civil  Code  and  an  eminent  authority  on 
international  law. 

The  National  Library  is  housed  in  the  old  Congress 
hall.  It  has  a very  extensive  collection  of  manuscript 


LIFE  IN  THE  CHILEAN  CAPITAL  207 


records  of  the  Inquisition,  brought  from  Lima,  and 
of  other  rare  historical  documents,  including  the  colo- 
nial archives.  I visited  the  Library  one  afternoon,  and 
was  shown  some  of  its  treasures  by  Director  Montt. 
But  the  atmosphere  of  secluded  scholarship  did  not 
come  upon  me  until  in  a remote  recess  I met  the 
Orientalist  of  the  institution,  a priestly  bookworm  in 
his  clerical  sotana^  a skull-cap  covering  his  tonsure, 
keen  eyes  peering  from  the  spectacles  across  a large 
inquisitive  nose,  — altogether  a striking  figure  of  the 
recluse  in  the  midst  of  the  musty  wisdom  of  the 
past. 

Some  sections  of  the  capital  city  are  shabby.  A 
walk  in  the  poorer  parts  — and  they  cover  much  terri- 
tory — disclosed  to  me  even  more  than  shabbiness, 
grinding  poverty.  Across  the  Mapocho,  the  walled 
and  bedded  river,  is  a church  with  a gaudy  blue  front 
and  a dreary  triangular  plaza.  Penury  stretches  on 
all  sides.  The  dwellings  are  low,  with  floors  below 
the  street  level  and  in  the  cold  and  rainy  season  under 
water.  The  interiors  are  repulsively  forbidding  and 
unsanitary.  The  comforts  of  life,  let  alone  the  de- 
cencies, cannot  be  acquired  in  such  squalid  surround- 
ings. No  subject  of  municipal  legislation  is  more 
pressing  than  that  of  sanitary  tenements,  and  no  mu- 
nicipality has  shown  greater  indifference  to  it  here- 
tofore than  Santiago.  Until  something  is  done  in 
this  direction,  the  palpitating  social  question  will  con- 
tinue to  palpitate,  and  purely  political  issues  will  have 
to  be  decided  under  the  scowl  of  the  proletariat. 

The  women  conductors  on  the  Santiago  tramways 
have  been  often  described.  They  are  not  many,  and 
they  are  not  all  of  them  the  loveliest  of  their  sex. 


208 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


but  they  are  faithful  and  obliging.  They  collect  the 
fares  about  as  rapidly  as  men  would  do.  The  motor- 
ists on  the  trolleys  are  men. 

A pleasing  view  of  the  poorer  class  of  the  popu- 
lation may  be  had  on  a national  holiday  or  a Church 
celebration.  I had  it  one  day  when  the  festival  of 
Corpus  Christ!  was  commemorated.  Both  Church 
and  State  took  part.  In  the  Plaza  de  Armas  were 
altars  with  burning  candles.  There  were  the  troops 
in  their  gayest  trappings  ; the  infantry  in  blue  breeches 
with  yellow  stripes,  wearing  white  plumes ; the  cavalry 
with  blue  plumes,  and  the  military  bands  with  red 
plumes,  — a gorgeous  grouping  of  colors.  It  was  a 
fine  army  showing,  more  imposing  than  the  priestly 
conclave  which,  approaching  from  the  adjoining  streets, 
entered  the  plaza  in  front  of  the  Cathedral.  The 
parade  was  led  by  the  Procession  of  the  Cross,  com- 
posed of  various  societies.  Delegations  from  the  dif- 
ferent parishes  followed.  Next  came  the  religious 
communities,  — the  Franciscans,  the  Dominicans,  the 
Capuchins,  the  Mercedarios,  and  the  Augustinians. 
After  them  the  parochial  clergy  brought  up  by  the 
prebendary  under  the  pallium,  the  archbishop  being 
unable  to  occupy  that  place  on  account  of  illness. 
The  pallium  was  preceded  by  the  archbishop’s  cross, 
and  was  conducted  by  local  notabilities. 

During  the  procession  some  of  the  women  and 
many  of  the  boys  knelt  in  the  streets  and  a few  men 
doffed  their  hats,  but  the  crowd  as  a whole  was  not 
devout  and  the  ceremony  was  not  impressive.  It 
partook  more  of  the  nature  of  a perfunctory  official 
function. 

Though  the  snow  of  the  Cordilleras  is  always  in 


LIFE  IN  THE  CHILEAN  CAPITAL  209 


sight,  Santiago  does  not  have  a snow-storm  oftener 
than  once  in  ten  years.  But  it  rains.  During  June, 
early  Winter,  I saw  clear  skies  on  not  more  than  half 
a dozen  days.  My  Chilean  friends  told  me  this  was 
exceptional,  and  to  prove  it  they  brought  the  verified 
weather  statistics.  These  showed  an  average  of  only 
35  rainy  days  out  of  365.  The  largest  proportion  was 
in  August,  when  there  were  ten  days  on  which  rain 
fell.  But  the  sky  is  overcast  much  oftener  than  this. 
There  are  very  many  days  which  are  described  by  the 
expressive  Spanish  word  triste,  that  gives  to  Nature 
the  element  of  personality  and  means  sombre  and 
sorrowful.  Besides,  while  the  actual  rainfall  is  not  so 
great,  there  are  seasons  when  the  humidity  is  very  dis- 
agreeable, and  this  is  in  Winter  instead  of  in  Summer. 
In  January  the  relative  humidity  was  64.6,  while  in 
July  (midwinter)  it  was  83.7.  The  average  for  the 
year  was  73.29.  The  temperature  is  quite  variable, 
and  the  difference  between  sun  and  shade  is  marked. 
In  January  the  maximum  in  the  shade  was  68°  Fah- 
renheit, and  in  the  sun  85°.  In  July  it  was  46°  in 
the  shade  and  57°  in  the  sun.  The  mean  average  for 
the  year  was  69°. 

The  Chilean  of  the  upper  class  is  as  indifferent  as 
he  thinks  the  humbler  class  ought  to  be  to  mere  phys- 
ical comfort.  He  resents  the  statement  that  not  more 
than  half  a dozen  dwellings  in  the  capital  have  chimneys, 
and  he  is  right  in  doing  so,  for  that  is  a libellous 
exaggeration.  Yet  the  majority  of  them  are  without 
chimneys,  and  their  occupants  get  through  the  villa- 
nous  Winter  season  with  oil-stoves  or  perhaps  even 
without  this  means  of  artificial  warmth.  I went  an 
afternoon  in  midwinter  to  call  on  one  of  the  local 

14 


210 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


captains  of  industry.  He  had  a handsome  residence, 
and,  happily,  a parlor  upholstered  in  warm  colors. 
No  other  means  of  getting  warm  were  provided.  He 
came  down  to  see  me  in  his  overcoat,  and  I had  gained 
experience  enough  not  to  think  of  removing  mine. 
“ It  is  only  a few  months,”  is  the  smiling  explanation 
of  shivering  through  the  Winter.  But  the  means  to 
provide  comfort  during  those  few  months  are  coming. 
The  wealthy  citizen  now  builds  his  residence  with 
chimneys  and  open  grates. 

Life  in  Santiago  — that  is,  social,  professional,  and 
business  life  — is  only  for  the  classes.  The  gulf  be- 
tween comfort  and  poverty  — for  it  is  simply  comfort, 
since  there  are  few  great  fortunes  — is  bridged  by 
ignoring  poverty.  And  it  has  to  be  confessed  that, 
with  wretchedness  blinked  out  of  sight,  existence  in  the 
Chilean  capital  is  agreeable.  The  city  is  both  the 
heart  and  the  pulse  of  the  nation.  The  commercial 
habit  — hardly  industrial,  for  the  factories  are  few  — 
limits  itself  to  an  hour  in  the  morning  before  breakfast 
and  rather  resents  intrusion  during  that  hour.  Though 
he  is  at  his  office,  the  business  man  would  rather  have 
you  come  around  after  breakfast,  since  it  spoils  his  mid- 
day meal  to  take  up  the  work  of  the  day  before  then. 
Some  humorous  experiences  of  my  own,  some  polite 
postponements,  satisfied  me  of  the  fixedness  of  this 
custom.  In  the  afternoon  there  is  real  activity,  con- 
centration which  in  a few  hours  makes  up  for  apparent 
slackness. 

In  professional  and  official  affairs  it  is  the  same.  An 
official  appointment  or  a call  of  any  nature  on  a public 
functionary  should  be  made  somewhere  between  half- 
past two  and  half-past  four.  I discovered  that  the 


View  of  Los  Andes 


LIFE  IN  THE  CHILEAN  CAPITAL  211 


official  urbanity  was  greatest  if  the  call  could  be  made 
between  three  and  four  o’clock. 

The  social  life  is  more  of  the  clubs  than  of  the 
home,  yet  there  are  many  fine  homes  where  a charm- 
ing hospitality  is  dispensed.  The  breakfast,  prefer- 
ably on  Sunday,  is  a favorite  social  function,  begin- 
ning at  mid-day  and  conducted  with  all  the  formality 
of  an  evening  dinner.  At  a breakfast  in  the  home 
of  Mr.  Emilio  Bello  Codecido,  a colleague  in  the 
Pan-American  Conference  at  Mexico,  1 met  many 
of  the  leading  people  of  Santiago,  among  them  Mr. 
Auguste  Matte,  another  colleague  in  that  conference. 
Madame  Bello  is  the  daughter  of  former  President 
Balmaceda.  Again,  Mr.  Juan  Walker  Martinez,  the 
brother  of  the  Chilean  minister  in  Washington,  de- 
siring to  give  me  an  opportunity  to  meet  some  of 
the  principal  men  of  the  city,  arranged  a breakfast 
at  the  Union  Club.  When  given  on  week  days, 
these  social  breakfast  functions  presuppose  no  press- 
ing business  or  professional  engagements  during  the 
afternoon. 

The  Santiagonian  is  a night-hawk.  His  club  life, 
and  when  he  is  not  at  the  club  his  family  life,  does  not 
begin  till  two  or  three  hours  after  sundown.  Every 
evening  he  is  found  at  the  Union  Club,  one  of  the  best 
associations  of  gentlemen  in  South  America.  It  may 
be  that  he  is  going  to  forego  this  practice  for  a few  hours 
and  accompany  his  wife  and  daughters  to  the  opera  or 
the  ball,  which  celebrates  some  charity  or  a public  func- 
tion. Female  society  is  satisfied  with  these  diversions 
and  with  church-going.  At  the  opera  it  is  resplendent 
in  Parisian  costumes.  Charity  draws  all  its  members. 
At  a charitable  performance  in  the  Municipal  Theatre 


212 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


one  night  I was  assured  I saw  all  that  was  lovely  in  the 
capital  — and  very  lovely  it  was. 

The  Chilean  women  are  less  restricted  by  traditional 
Spanish  formalities  than  their  sex  in  other  South  Ameri- 
can countries.  They  shop  by  themselves,  and  many 
are  employed  in  the  stores  and  similar  places,  but  man 
is  the  master,  and  the  women  take  pleasure  in  recog- 
nizing this.  They  go  to  the  ball  or  the  opera  to 
be  admired,  and  the  strangers  admire  and  continue  to 
admire. 

The  chivalry  of  the  male  Chilean,  while  formal  and 
precise,  is  rather  commonplace.  He  gives  the  lady  the 
inner  side  of  the  street,  and  will  politely  describe  the 
arc  of  a great  circle  and  cheerfully  step  off  into 
the  sewer  that  his  gallantry  in  this  matter  of  etiquette 
may  not  be  questioned.  But  this  is  the  limit  of  his 
concession,  except  that  if  he  be  of  a literary  turn  he 
may  write  sonnets  to  her  black  eyes.  He  extends  the 
first  greeting.  Without  it  his  most  intimate  female 
acquaintance  must  not  manifest  the  faintest  sign  of 
recognition.  This  custom  is  intensely  exasperating  to 
the  visitor,  who  finds  the  Chilean  women  look  so  much 
alike  that  he  may  have  calmly  ignored  his  vis-a-vis 
at  a social  function  while  he  has  greeted  with  effusive 
politeness  a lady  who  makes  it  apparent,  though  not 
disagreeably,  that  she  never  saw  him  before. 

At  the  theatre  the  zarzuela^  or  one-act  comedy,  is  as 
popular  as  in  Spain.  After  the  performance  the  clubs 
find  all  the  men  congregated  there.  The  gambling  is 
high.  It  has  been  said  that  the  Chilean  who  forms  a 
part  in  the  social  life  of  the  country  must  be  either 
a soldier,  a priest,  or  a farmer.  With  the  predomi- 
nance of  the  army  and  navy,  the  first  class  would  be 


LIFE  IN  THE  CHILEAN  CAPITAL  213 


certain.  The  priest  is  less  an  element  than  formerly, 
but  the  farmer  is  the  constant  factor.  The  latter  class 
includes  the  professional  men,  lawyers  and  doctors,  and 
the  business  men,  for  all  are  landed  proprietors. 

Sunday  is  the  day  for  society,  for  drives  to  Cousino 
Park,  and  to  the  Quinta  Normal  or  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station,  which  is  also  a zoological  garden. 
The  grounds  are  extensive  and  well  wooded  with  syca- 
mores and  cypresses,  but  they  impressed  me  as  being 
badly  neglected.  Cousino  Park  also  had  the  appear- 
ance of  unkemptness.  Chile  long  ago  abolished  the 
bull-fight,  and  she  does  not  permit  a national  lottery, 
though  there  is  no  interference  with  the  sale  of  tickets 
for  the  Buenos  Ayres  drawing.  Football  and  other 
athletic  sports  are  in  high  favor.  Santiago  in  this 
respect  is  an  English  town.  The  great  attraction  is 
the  racing,  and  on  a Sunday  afternoon  in  the  season 
the  Carrera,  or  Club  Hipico,  gathers  all  that  is  fashion- 
able and  all  that  is  animated. 

Though  Santiago  has  a delightful  Summer  climate, — 
the  thermometer  never  gets  above  85°  Fahrenheit, 
— every  one  who  is  anybody  has  -sl  fundo.^  or  country 
estate,  to  which  the  family  flits  at  the  first  approach 
of  the  heated  season.  Later  in  November  all  move  to 
the  seashore  resort  of  Vina  del  Mar,  near  Valparaiso, 
and  play  golf. 

The  English  group  in  Santiago  is  the  largest  of  the 
foreign  colonies,  but  it  is  not  so  extensive  as  the  many 
English  and  Scotch  names  would  lead  one  to  suppose. 
These  names  are  borne  by  Chileans  whose  great- 
grandfathers were  from  the  British  Isles,  or  a very  few 
of  whom  were  from  the  United  States. 

Newspapers  in  Chile  are  as  much  an  institution  as 


214 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


in  the  United  States.  This  is  true  both  of  Santiago 
and  of  Valparaiso.  El  Mercurio,  “ The  Mercury,” 
which  is  published  in  both  cities,  has  fine  buildings, 
superior  in  their  conveniences  to  newspaper  offices  in 
the  United  States,  and  with  provisions  for  editors, 
reporters,  printers,  and  other  employees  that  the  Land 
of  Journalism  (I  mean  the  United  States)  is  a century 
behind  in.  Dining-rooms,  private  parlors,  working- 
offices  with  baths,  bedrooms,  chess,  for  the  working- 
staff"  of  a daily  newspaper ! The  Santiago  office  of 
El  Mercurio  is  notable  not  only  for  its  own  facilities, 
which  are  very  complete,  but  for  its  salons  and  other 
rooms  which  are  maintained  for  the  benefit  of  the 
public.  In  a newspaper  office  in  the  United  States 
the  patron  is  lucky  if  he  can  get  standing-room 
against  any  kind  of  counter  or  railing  in  order  to 
write  his  advertisement.  In  Santiago  he  may  have 
a table  and  chair  and  take  his  time.  In  consulting 
the  files  he  has  all  the  luxury  of  a modern  library 
reading-room.  The  salons  in  the  “ Mercury  ” build- 
ing are  thrown  open  to  the  public  for  receptions  and 
similar  functions.  One  afternoon  I attended  by  in- 
vitation a concert  given  by  the  members  of  the 
visiting  Italian  Opera  Company  in  the  music-room. 
Members  of  the  Diplomatic  Corps,  public  function- 
aries, and  all  that  was  distinguished  in  professional  and 
social  life  in  the  capital  were  present  by  Invitation  of 
the  newspaper  management. 

The  owner  of  El  Mercurio^  Mr.  Augustin  Edwards, 
is  a young  man.  He  is  of  the  banking  family  of  that 
name,  is  a member  of  the  Congress,  and  has  been 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs.  His  journals  publish 
more  foreign  and  cable  intelligence  than  any  two 


The  Roman  AyuEDOcr  on  Santa  Lucia,  Santiago 


LIFE  IN  THE  CHILEAN  CAPITAL  215 


newspapers  in  any  city  of  a quarter  of  a million  in- 
habitants in  the  United  States. 

While  a large  amount  of  telegraphic  and  local  news 
is  printed,  the  leader,  or  editorial  on  the  foremost  topic 
of  the  day,  is  a prominent  feature  of  the  daily  issue, 
and  one  that  carries  great  weight  with  the  reading 
public.  One  evening  at  dinner,  at  the  house  of  Mr. 
Alejandro  Bertrand,  the  distinguished  Chilean  civil 
engineer,  who  was  his  country’s  expert  commissioner 
in  the  boundary  dispute  with  Argentina,  the  talk  turned 
on  the  negro  question.  There  are  no  blacks  in  Chile, 
and  one  of  the  guests,  a man  of  prominence  in  finance 
and  politics,  who  had  lived  much  in  Europe,  confessed 
his  perplexity  over  the  negro  issue,  and  wanted  to 
know  something  about  the  African  race.  The  clearest 
exposition  that  I ever  heard  of  the  life-work  of  Booker 
Washington,  and  the  most  discriminating  explanation 
of  the  race  problem  in  the  United  States,  were  given 
by  Mr.  Silva,  the  leader  writer  on  El  Mercurio. 
Though  he  had  spent  some  years  in  England,  he  never 
had  visited  the  United  States,  yet  he  was  thoroughly 
conversant  with  our  national  perplexity.  It  therefore 
may  be  understood  that  the  leading  problems  of  the 
United  States  are  discussed  with  intelligence  in  Chile, 
though  Chilean  subjects  may  not  always  receive  the 
same  treatment  in  the  journals  of  the  United  States. 

Besides  El  Mercurio^  Santiago  has  other  vigorous 
papers.  One  of  them  is  La  Lei,  “The  Law.”  The 
name  is  misleading,  for  it  is  merely  a daily  journal 
devoted  to  current  topics.  It  represents  radical  po- 
litical tendencies.  Its  editor,  Mr.  Phillips,  was  declared 
to  me  to  be  either  feared  or  loved  by  every  public  man 
in  Chile,  and  the  alternations  of  fear  and  love  were 


216  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


said  to  be  as  regular  as  the  seasons.  Here,  then,  was 
the  ideal  editor.  In  a call  on  Editor  Phillips  I was 
impressed  with  this  feeling.  His  aggressive  personality 
would  be  bound  to  make  friends  and  enemies,  and  his 
independence  in  discussing  public  questions  would  be 
certain  to  insure  ideal  journalism. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

NITRATE  OF  SODA  AN  ALADDIN’S  LAMP 

Extensive  Use  of  Nitrates  as  Fertilizers  — Enormous  Contributions 
to  Chilean  Revenues — Resume  of  Exportations  — Description 
of  the  Industry  — How  the  Deposits  Lie  — Iodine  a By- 
product— Stock  of  Saltpetre  in  Reserve — The  Trust  and 
Production  — Estimates  of  Ultimate  Exhaustion  — A Third 
of  a Century  More  of  Prosperous  Existence  — Shipments  not 
Affected  by  Panama  Canal  — Copper  a Source  of  W ealth  — 
Output  in  Northern  Districts  — Further  Development  — 
Coal  — Silver  Mines  Productive  in  the  Past  — Prospect  of 
Future  Exploitation. 

IS  nitrate  of  soda,  the  saltpetre  of  commerce,  a 
national  blessing  or  a national  curse? 

After  the  war  with  Peru  and  Bolivia,  by  which  Chile 
added  to  her  territory  1,200  miles  of  seacoast,  including 
the  Bolivian  Province  of  Antofagasta  and  the  Peruvian 
Province  of  Tarapaca,  a Chilean  naval  commander  was 
credited  with  the  foreboding  prophecy  that  the  nitrates 
would  ruin  Chile  as  they  had  ruined  Peru. 

In  its  political  phase  the  question  may  be  answered 
according  to  the  bias  of  the  individual.  It  enters 
into  the  subjects  concerning  which  Chileans  engage  in 
heated  controversies  when  discussing  policies  and  ten- 
dencies, or  criticising  government  expenditures.  But 
this  aspect  has  no  direct  bearing  on  the  naked  eco- 
nomic facts  of  production  and  the  addition  to  the 
nutritious  substances  of  the  world’s  soil. 


218 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


Nitrates  are  among  the  most  extensively  used  fertil- 
izers known  to  agriculture,  and  the  demand  for  them 
grows.  Their  relation  to  the  fiscal  system  of  Chile 
may  be  understood  when  it  is  known  that  from  85  to 
87  per  cent  of  the  total  revenues  is  derived  from  the 
export  tax  on  the  saltpetre  products.  This  impost  is, 
in  terms  of  English  currency,  at  the  rate  of  28  pence 
per  46  kilograms  or  Spanish  quintal  of  101.4  pounds, 
relatively  55  cents  for  each  100  pounds.  Their  ratio 
of  contribution  to  the  national  wealth  is  shown  by  an 
analysis  for  a given  year,  when  the  total  value  of  the 
exports  was  ^73,786,000  gold,  of  which  ^53,565,000 
was  nitrates  and  the  by-product  of  iodine,  while  the 
balance  of  $20,221,000  was  composed  of  mineral  and 
agricultural  products  and  manufactured  articles.  In 
Chilean  currency  the  figures  were  ^202,153,000,  of 
which  the  nitrates  constituted  I146, 756,000.  In  the 
last  quarter  of  a century  the  nitrate  beds  have  yielded 
to  the  Chilean  government  $273,000,000  gold,  and  it 
is  estimated  that  during  the  next  twenty-five  years,  on 
the  basis  of  the  present  export  tax,  the  revenue  will 
amount  to  $436,000,000. 

The  first  exportations  were  made  in  1832.  They 
continued  on  a small  scale  until  the  war  in  which  Peru 
lost  the  Province  of  Tarapaca,  and  their  exploitation 
on  a large  scale  may  be  said  to  have  begun  in  1882 
under  the  Chilean  administration.  In  that  year  the 
exportations  amounted  to  10,701,000  Spanish  quintals. 
In  the  period  inclusive  from  1832  to  1904  the  total 
reached  the  enormous  sum  of  602,438,000  quintals, 
or  61,087,213,200  pounds,  equal  to  27,271,077  long 
tons  of  2,240  pounds.  The  personal  histories  of  the 
individuals  who  engaged  in  the  exploitation  of  the 


NITRATES  AN  ALADDIN’S  LAMP  219 


saltpetre  deposits  are  as  romantic  as  the  experiences 
of  the  bonanza  mining-kings.  Nitrate  kings  have 
risen  and  thriven  and  have  held  their  courts  with 
titled  courtiers  in  their  train.  Colossal  fortunes  have 
been  made  and  plain  commoners  have  become  peers 
of  England  treading  the  golden  path  which  was  paved 
with  saltpetre. 

So  little  is  known  about  the  nitrate  industry  that  I 
venture  to  repeat  the  substance  of  a description  which 
I found  at  once  entertaining  and  instructive.' 

The  saltpetre  or  nitrate  zone  embraces  the  exten- 
sion comprehended  between  the  Camarones  in  south 
latitude  19°  ii'  on  the  north  and  parallel  27°  to  the 
port  of  Caldera  on  the  south,  450  miles  in  length. 
The  distance  which  separates  it  from  the  coast  varies. 
In  the  northern  part  the  sea  is  only  15  miles  away; 
in  the  South  it  is  93  miles  distant. 

The  deposits  of  saltpetre  situated  in  the  Province 
of  Tarapaca  occupy  the  small  folds  and  the  gently 
rising  hills  which  extend  from  the  west  of  the  pampas 
of  Tamarugal.  To  the  south  of  the  Loa  River  these 
deposits  follow  no  lode,  and  they  are  met  with  in  the 
midst  of  the  great  pampas  as  well  as  in  the  folds  of 
some  hills.  But  they  extend  always  in  a zone  which 
runs  to  a distance  varying  from  37  to  93  miles  from 
the  coast.  The  short  space  that  separates  them  from 
the  sea  makes  easy  the  access  to  the  neighboring  ports 
by  means  of  the  railroads  through  the  ravines  which 
traverse  the  Cordillera  of  the  coast. 

The  saltpetre  is  found  mixed  with  other  substances 

^ For  the  facts  here  given  I am  indebted,  through  the  courtesy  of  Min- 
ister Walker  Martinez,  to  Mr.  J.  J.  Campana,  of  Iquique  ; but  the  opinions 
are  my  own. 


220 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


and  forming  an  irregular  layer,  frequently  broken  up 
into  barren  parts,  in  which  generally  common  salt  dom- 
inates, or  simply  a conglomeration  of  clay,  gravel,  and 
sulphate  of  soda. 

The  layer  or  covering  which  contains  the  nitrate  is 
encountered  at  a very  slight  depth,  covered  by  a fold 
of  the  conglomeration  indicated,  and  which  in  general 
is  altogether  sterile,  though  in  some  parts,  principally 
in  the  North,  it  contains  a regular  vein  of  nitrate. 

The  vein  of  nitrate  of  soda  in  the  layer  which  con- 
tains it  is  quite  variable,  the  highest  proportion  being 
in  the  Province  of  Tarapaca,  where  in  some  points  the 
medium  quality  amounts  to  6o  per  cent.  In  the 
southern  region  this  quality  of  caliche,  or  crude  mate- 
rial, diminishes,  and  does  not  exceed  an  average  of  30 
per  cent. 

The  name  caliche  is  given  to  the  raw  material  which 
contains  the  saltpetre  that  is  found  in  the  beds  of 
deposits  mixed  with  common  salt,  sulphate  of  soda, 
clay,  and  other  foreign  substances.  The  thickness  of 
the  layer  is  decidedly  variable,  and  fluctuates  between 
a few  inches  and  three  feet.  Deposits  of  greater  thick- 
ness exist,  but  these  never  have  a great  extension. 

The  height  above  sea-level  at  which  these  deposits 
are  met  with  varies  from  3,600  to  13,000  feet. 

The  layers  composing  a saltpetre  deposit  are : 

I St.  Chuca.  — This  is  formed  by  clay  mixed  with 
earth  very  fine  and  evenly  spread.  The  thickness  of 
the  chuca  generally  does  not  exceed  an  inch  and  a 
quarter. 

2d.  Costra.  — This  layer,  which  forms  the  imme- 
diate covering  for  the  caliche,  has  a thickness  fluctuat- 
ing between  four-fifths  of  an  inch  and  several  feet. 


NITRATES  AN  ALADDIN’S  LAMP  221 


3d.  Caliche.  — This  is  the  layer  which  contains  the 
saltpetre,  and  its  thickness  varies  greatly  in  different 
places. 

4th.  Conjelo  and  cova.  — This  is  the  last  layer, 
which  rests  upon  the  rock.  It  is  formed  by  a mixture 
of  common  salt,  various  sulphates,  and  other  salts,  but 
contains  no  saltpetre.  Its  thickness  is  also  very 
variable. 

The  limpid  caliche  is  taken  to  the  finishing  estab- 
lishments, where  it  is  submitted  to  a process  of  purifi- 
cation which  is  founded  on  the  great  solubility  of 
nitrate  of  soda,  superior  to  the  other  salts  which  are  in 
combination  with  it,  in  water  heated  to  the  boiling- 
point.  The  solutions  which  result  are  carried  by  means 
of  troughs  to  great  vats,  where  the  nitrate  of  soda 
crystallizes  along  with  the  potash,  which  exists  in 
small  quantity  together  with  a little  common  salt  and 
a small  amount  of  sulphates  and  impurities. 

The  quality  of  the  saltpetre  thus  crystallized  is  95 
per  cent  of  nitrate  of  soda,  and  it  is  known  by  the 
name  of  ordinary  or  current  saltpetre.  Refined  salt- 
petre of  the  grade  of  96  per  cent  is  also  obtained  by 
submitting  the  warm  solutions  to  a light  and  short 
decantation,  by  which  there  is  left  a part  of  the  salt 
and  the  impurities.  The  refined  product  is  passed 
immediately  to  the  crystallizing  vats.  For  this  process 
powerful  machinery  is  used  which  can  refine  1,000,000 
pounds  of  saltpetre  daily.  The  residue  of  the  nitrate 
of  soda  is  known  by  the  name  of  ripio.  Its  per- 
centage of  saltpetre  is  estimated  below  15. 

The  saltpetre  zone  is  served  with  railways.  These 
leave  the  various  ports  and  ascend  to  a height  of  4,000 
feet  above  sea-level,  with  the  exception  of  those  of 


222  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


Caleta  Buena  and  Junin,  which  stretch  from  the  sum- 
mits of  the  neighboring  Cordillera  to  the  sea  and 
are  united  with  the  ports  by  means  of  automotors. 
The  automotor  piano  of  Junin  has  a vertical  height  of 
2,145  those  of  Caleta  Buena  2,430  feet. 

The  Granja  or  Challorcollo  road  traverses  the 
pampas  of  Tamlugal,  and  reaches  the  foot  of  the  hill 
of  Challorcollo.  From  this  point  there  is  a hanging 
railway,  which  reaches  the  mines  in  the  summit  of  the 
hill  at  a height  of  4,600  feet  and  is  two  miles  long. 

An  important  factor  in  the  production  of  nitrates  is 
coal,  which  is  used  in  large  quantities,  the  consump- 
tion being  not  less  than  400,000  tons  annually.  The 
prices  fluctuate  from  22  to  28  shillings  per  ton. 
Generally  English  coal  or  that  from  Australia  is  used. 
Chilean  coal  is  not  employed  to  any  extent.  The 
home  production  is  hardly  sufficient  for  the  needs  of 
the  railroads  and  the  industries  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  country.  Besides,  the  ships  which  carry  the 
nitrates  to  foreign  ports  return  with  coal  as  the  cargo. 
The  freight  rates  to  Europe  for  the  nitrates  vary  from 
20  to  30  shillings  per  ton. 

In  all  the  deposits  iodine  is  found  formed  of  salts 
with  the  base  of  soda.  The  salts  of  iodine  dissolve 
along  with  the  nitrate  of  soda,  and  later  are  extracted 
from  the  mother  waters  which  have  remained  after  the 
crystallization  of  the  saltpetre.  The  process  is  simple 
and  cheap,  and  the  iodine  is  obtained  in  the  metallic 
state  and  perfectly  pure,  in  which  condition  it  is  a 
commerical  commodity. 

The  small  consumption  of  iodine  in  the  industry 
has  caused  the  producers  of  the  entire  world  to  form  a 
combination  to  limit  the  production  and  fix  its  relation 


NITRATES  AN  ALADDIN’S  LAMP  223 


to  consumption.  The  agreement  obliges  all  the  salt- 
petre establishments  of  each  country  to  withdraw  only 
a very  small  part  of  the  iodine  which  their  properties 
contain.  At  some  future  period  the  refuse  of  the 
saltpetre  will  be  worked  to  extract  the  iodine. 

The  annual  production  of  iodine  is  approximately 
4,200  Spanish  quintals.  The  price  of  the  substance 
is  about  5^  pence  per  troy  ounce.  The  total  export 
tax  varies  from  ^150,000  to  $100,000. 

To  the  east  of  the  ports  of  Punta  de  Lobos  and  of 
Hurmillos  is  a great  salt  field  extending  over  an  area 
of  32,000  hectares,  or  80,000  acres.  It  is  covered  with 
common  salt,  or  chloride  of  sodium.  The  salt  is  per- 
fectly pure  and  crystallized.  The  analyses  have  given 
99.99  per  cent  of  chloride  of  sodium.  The  thickness 
of  this  salt  layer  is  not  known.  The  deepest  wells 
have  reached  82  feet.  In  a recent  year  220,000  quin- 
tals were  exported  to  the  interior  of  the  country.  The 
good  quality  of  this  salt  allows  it  to  be  used  in  every 
class  of  industry  and  also  for  domestic  purposes. 
Besides  the  great  salt  bed  named,  there  are  various 
others,  but  these  are  not  so  important. 

The  number  of  laborers  employed  in  the  nitrate 
industry  varies  from  20,000  to  25,000  according  to  the 
activity  of  the  season.  Production  in  some  years  has 
been  curtailed  through  the  scarcity  of  labor  or  through 
strikes  and  similar  causes. 

The  principal  application  of  saltpetre  is  in  agricul- 
ture, it  being  employed  as  manure  for  land  worn  out 
by  many  years  of  continuous  cultivation.  Some  crops 
give  25  per  cent  to  30  per  cent  more  than  those  which 
are  raised  without  fertilizing  the  ground  with  nitrates. 
In  special  cases  the  returns  have  been  much  larger, 


224  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


and  it  is  on  this  account  that  this  fertilizer  has  obtained 
so  considerable  an  increase  in  all  markets. 

The  stock  of  saltpetre  was  calculated  for  the  entire 
nitrate  zone  as  of  January  i,  1900,  approximately  as 


follows : 

Spanish  Quintals 

Tarapaca  — Private  properties 407,160,000 

State  properties 165,888,513 

Total 573,048,513 

Toco  — Private  properties 138,112,000 

State  properties 87,726,769 

Total 225,838,769 

Aguas  Blancas  and  Antofagasta  — Private  properties  . 153,000,000 

Taltal  — Private  properties 151,984,500 

Grand  total  of  nitrates 1,103,871,782 


To  this  calculation  should  be  added  the  nitrates 
which  may  exist  in  the  pampas  without  having  been 
discovered  up  to  this  time  both  in  Tarapaca  and  in 
the  districts  of  the  South.  In  Tarapaca  are  the  pam- 
pas of  Orcoma,  in  which  have  been  found  layers  of 
saltpetre  of  low  grade,  but  which  later  may  prove 
worth  developing,  though  not  while  deposits  of  greater 
importance  exist  and  while  the  present  prices  are 
maintained. 

There  are  also  deposits  of  saltpetre  to  the  north  of 
Pisagua  in  the  pampas  of  Tacna,  but  in  small  quantity 
and  in  isolated  beds. 

Deducting  the  output  from  the  time  the  calculation 
was  made  to  1905,  the  total  would  be  951,754,000 
quintals  then  untouched.  The  nitrate  fields  which 
have  not  been  reconnoitred  have  been  estimated  at 
500,000,000  quintals,  but  that  is  rather  a guess  than  a 
calculation.  A safer  assumption  would  be  300,000,000 


NITRATES  AN  ALADDIN’S  LAMP  225 


quintals.  The  Antofagasta  district  has  come  up  to 
expectations.  Approximately,  then,  it  may  be  said 
that  in  1905  Chile  had  a nitrate  reserve  of  a billion 
and  a quarter  (1,250,000,000)  quintals  of  fertilizing 
material  for  the  world’s  needs.  That  is  a prodigious 
quantity,  but  not  an  inexhaustible  one.  In  the  eleven 
years  from  1894  to  1904  inclusive  the  exports  in- 
creased at  an  average  rate  of  1,000,000  quintals  an- 
nually. They  were  23,947,000  in  1894;  in  1904, 
32,387,000  quintals. 

The  industry  is  in  every  sense  a modern  one,  for  it 
is  controlled  by  a combination,  or  trust.  This  ar- 
rangement has  one  good  feature : it  insures  reliable 
statistical  data.  The  prospect  as  to  production  may 
be  readily  grasped  when  the  explanation  is  made  that 
the  output  for  the  year  which  ended  with  the  first 
quarter  of  1905  was  placed  at  36,000,000  Spanish 
quintals  as  against  32,387,000  the  previous  year. 
This  means  a direct  revenue  of  $20,000,000  gold  as 
long  as  the  rate  of  production  is  maintained.  A 
lowering  of  prices  might  cause  the  output  to  be 
lessened  a few  million  pounds,  but  the  world’s  de- 
mand is  steady  enough  to  assume  that  for  the  present 
period  these  figures  may  stand  substantially  without 
change. 

In  the  entire  nitrate  zone  there  are  about  100  qficinas, 
or  clarifying  establishments.  The  original  combination 
of  the  producers,  or  trust,  was  for  five  years,  and  be- 
gan March  31,  1901.  The  amount  of  saltpetre  which 
the  qficinas  may  produce  is  fixed  annually  by  a direc- 
torate. The  exportation  cannot  be  less  than  the  pre- 
vious year’s  consumption. 

If  the  rate  of  production  fixed  by  the  combination 


220 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


during  recent  years  should  be  maintained  without 
further  change,  there  would  remain  33  to  35  years 
more  of  nitrate  exploitation  on  the  present  scale. 
Nothing,  however,  is  more  improbable.  The  product 
will  be  increased  as  rapidly  as  good  prices  can  be  ob- 
tained, and  the  experience  of  the  last  ten  years  has 
shown  that  the  consumption  grows  fast  enough  to 
justify  the  larger  output.  No  combination  of  pro- 
ducers can  keep  new  capital  from  coming  into  the 
nitrate  fields,  for  no  vague  fear  of  the  future  will  be 
strong  enough  to  cause  the  government  to  withdraw 
from  rental  for  an  indefinite  period  its  nitrate  prop- 
erties. The  new  capital  wants  quick  returns  on  the 
investment.  It  urges  advertising,  spending  more 
money  in  the  propaganda  maintained  to  educate  the 
world  in  the  value  of  saltpetre  as  a fertilizer. 

Against  constant  pressure  for  widening  the  market 
may  come  competition  from  artificial  products,  or  new 
discoveries  of  nitrate  fields  in  the  desert  of  Sahara  or 
in  California  that  will  terminate  the  monopoly  of  pro- 
duction and  cause  the  export  tax  to  be  lowered.  But 
while  the  profits  might  be  lessened  from  some  such 
cause,  it  does  not  follow  that  the  production  would  be 
curtailed.  It  would  the  more  likely  be  swollen.  Ex- 
pert opinion  is  that  the  existing  oficinas  could  double 
their  output.  The  profit  which  now  accrues  from  an 
annual  production  of  35,000,000  or  36,000,000  quin- 
tals could  be  spread  over  50,000,000  quintals  and 
still  show  a margin  of  gain.  Thus  in  any  view 
the  quantity  of  saltpetre  extracted  is  likely  to  grow 
with  each  year,  subject  only  to  temporary  checks  or 
fluctuations. 

Studied  in  every  light,  Chile’s  Aladdin’s  lamp 


NITRATES  AN  ALADDIN’S  LAMP  227 


flickers,  for  the  life  of  the  nitrate  industry  as  a national 
wealth  producer  draws  to  a close.  A third  of  a cen- 
tury to  forty  years  reasonably  may  be  fixed  as  the  term 
of  its  existence.  After  that  will  remain  the  debris  of 
the  industry,  and  possibly  before  the  beds  approach 
exhaustion,  irrigation  will  make  the  dead  pampas 
blossom  with  the  luxuriance  of  tropical  agriculture, 
and  the  present  sparse  and  artificially  sustained  pop- 
ulation will  be  supplanted  by  populous  farming 
communities. 

In  the  opening  chapter  I have  stated  that  the 
Panama  Canal  in  its  ultimate  economic  influence  will 
not  affect  the  nitrates  or  be  affected  by  them,  because 
their  life  is  limited  to  the  infancy  of  the  waterway, 
while,  during  the  period  of  their  existence  that  may  re- 
main after  it  is  opened  to  traffic,  the  bulky  nature  of 
the  cargo  which  must  pay  the  tolls  counteracts  the 
possible  shortening  of  the  distance.  It  may  develop 
that  other  commercial  considerations  will  cause  some 
diversion  of  the  nitrate  carrying-trade  through  the 
Canal,  but  this  will  be  chiefly  for  the  gulf  ports  and 
the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States.  It  is  not 
likely  to  become  important,  since  the  market  for  salt- 
petre fertilizers  is  mainly  in  Europe.  England  takes 
directly  and  for  the  Continent  between  7,000,000 
and  8,000,000  quintals  annually,  Germany  about 
1,000,000  more,  and  France  5,000,000  quintals. 
Other  European  countries  import  from  500,000  up 
to  2,000,000  quintals.  The  east  coast  of  the  United 
States  imports  5,000,000  quintals,  or  not  more  than 
15  to  20  per  cent  of  the  total  production,  though  the 
consumption  is  a growing  one  and  is  stimulated  by 
systematic  advertising.  This  proportion  may  increase 


228 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


without  materially  lessening  the  cargoes  of  nitrates 
which  will  be  transported  through  the  Straits  or 
around  Cape  Horn  to  Liverpool,  Hamburg,  and 
Havre. 

After  the  nitrates,  copper  is  the  most  productive 
source  of  mineral  wealth,  and  is  the  most  important 
element  in  metal  mining.  The  output  ranges  from 

30.000  to  35,000  tons  each  year.  The  heaviest  out- 
put is  in  the  northern  region,  where  the  outlet  is 
through  the  ports  of  Coquimbo  and  Antofagasta,  but 
the  single  district  of  Lota  in  the  South  has  a larger 
output  than  either  of  them.  It  contributes  from 

7.000  tons  upward  in  bars  and  ingots.  The  Guaya- 
can  mines  in  the  Department  of  Ovalle  have  a similar 
output.  In  the  district  of  Chuquicamata,  which  is  in 
the  volcanic  Cordilleras,  160  miles  from  Antofagasta 
by  the  railway  and  9,000  feet  above  sea-level,  are  half 
a dozen  copper  mines  producing  18,000  to  20,000 
tons  of  ore  which  averages  18  per  cent.  The  area  is 
8 square  miles  of  country  rock  of  pure  granite  with 
true  fissure  lodes,  and  it  is  estimated  that  there  are 
15,000,000  tons  of  decomposed  rock  averaging  one- 
half  of  I per  cent  of  copper.  In  the  Capopo  district 
are  a group  of  copper  mines  which  have  a monthly 
output  of  2,500  or  2,600  tons  of  ore,  the  sulphides 
predominating  in  most  of  them. 

The  copper  industry  of  Chile  has  been  a reason- 
ably profitable  and  steady  one,  and  without  doubt  it  is 
capable  of  a considerable  expansion  by  the  application 
of  modern  methods  and  the  more  general  adoption  of 
improved  machinery.  The  bulk  of  the  shipments  is 
in  the  form  of  fine  bar  copper,  though  both  regulus 
and  copper  ores  are  exported. 


NITRATES  AN  ALADDIN’S  LAMP  229 


The  coal  mines  are  located  in  the  Provinces  of  Con- 
cepcion and  Arauco,  the  most  productive  veins  being 
at  Lota  and  Coronel.  This  is  utilized  on  the  railways 
and  in  local  industries  as  well  as  in  coaling  vessels, 
but  the  output  does  not  equal  the  demand,  and  Chile 
may  be  looked  upon  as  an  importer  ot  coal  for  an  in- 
definite period.  There  is  lignite  to  the  south  toward 
the  Straits,  but  its  commercial  value  has  not  been 
demonstrated. 

Iron  ore  has  been  found  in  the  Province  of  Co- 
quimbo  and  elsewhere,  but  the  production  is  light. 
The  government  made  valuable  concessions  to  a 
French  company  which  agreed  to  establish  an  iron 
industry  in  Valdivia. 

The  gold  that  exists  in  the  North,  where  the  lodes 
are  quartz,  and  the  lavaderos,  or  washings,  in  the  allu- 
vial soil  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  are  not  likely  to  become 
Important  sources  of  national  wealth,  though  new  dis- 
coveries which  prove  worth  working  are  reported 
from  time  to  time. 

In  times  past,  Chilean  silver  mines  have  been  quite 
productive.  The  most  famous  were  the  Chanarcillo 
and  Chimbote  in  the  Copiapo  district,  which  a few 
years  ago  were  declared  to  be  worked  out.  A group 
in  the  Iquique  region  includes  the  mineral  section 
of  Huantayaja.  The  total  output  from  this  group 
during  the  ten  years  preceding  1892  was  placed  at 
$22,000,000.  After  that  the  production  decreased, 
though  it  was  said  to  average  ^400,000  annually. 
The  depth  of  workings  in  these  mines  varies  from 
200  to  2,000  feet.  The  general  character  of  the  ore 
is  chlorides,  and  the  formation  of  the  rock  is  porphy- 
ritic  and  calcareous.  White  silver  about  95  per  cent 


230 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


pure  and  the  very  rich  ores  are  found  in  pockets  near 
the  contact  of  the  calcareous  porphyritic  rocks.  Near 
these  mines  is  the  mineral  section  of  Santa  Rosa  which 
includes  the  Consequencia  and  the  Pansio.  The  lat- 
ter is  said  to  have  produced  ^1,600,000  during  the 
last  ten  years. 

In  the  Province  of  Antofagasta  are  the  two  silver 
districts  known  as  Caracoles  and  Inca  Caracoles.  The 
former  is  1 10  miles  from  the  coast.  These  mines  were 
discovered  so  recently  as  1869.  The  lodes  were  of 
extraordinary  richness.  The  ores  were  chiefly  chlo- 
rides, iodides,  and  mixtures  of  chlorides  and  sulphides. 
The  ore  deposits  were  superficial,  and  the  ore  generally 
was  found  in  pockets.  The  shafts  were  from  300  to 
600  feet  deep,  though  one  of  them  had  a depth  of 
2,500  feet.  Deep  mining  was  abandoned,  as  it  was 
shown  that  the  veins  split  up  into  small  fissures. 
The  output  of  the  Caracoles  group  was  estimated  at 
60,000,000  ounces  of  fine  silver  up  to  the  time  when 
the  mines  were  practically  abandoned.  At  present 
the  output  is  said  not  to  exceed  a few  thousand 
ounces. 

The  Inca  Caracoles  mines  are  situated  near  the 
town  of  Calama,  150  miles  from  the  port  of  Anto- 
fagasta. The  country  rock  is  porphyry,  and  the  lodes 
range  from  3 to  6 feet  in  width.  The  ore  is  chiefly 
chloride,  and  averages  40  ounces  to  the  ton.  Heavy 
freights  and  the  absence  of  water  have  prevented  the 
development  of  this  group,  and  the  prospective  output 
cannot  be  accurately  estimated.  However,  it  seems 
to  have  great  possibilities. 

Neither  copper  nor  silver  ever  will  suffice  to  make 
up  the  deficiency  in  the  national  wealth  caused  by  the 


NITRATES  AN  ALADDIN’S  LAMP  231 


gradual  exhaustion  of  the  nitrate  beds,  yet  increased 
transportation  facilities  and  the  application  of  the 
newer  processes  give  promise  of  a revival  of  the  min- 
eral industry  and  an  appreciable  addition  to  the 
productive  resources  of  the  country. 


CHAPTER  XV 

CHILE’S  UNIQUE  POLITICAL  HISTORY 

National  Life  a Growth  — Anarchy  after  Independence  — Presi- 
dents Prieto^  Bulnes^  Montt^  Perez — Constitution  of  l8jj  — 
Liberal  Modifications — The  Governing  Groups  — Civil  War 
under  President  Balmaceda  — His  Tragic  End  — Triumph 
of  his  Policies  — Political  System  of  To-day  — Government 
by  the  One  Hundred  Families  — Relative  Power  of  the 
Executive  and  the  Congress  — Election  Methods  Illustrated — 
Ecclesiastical  Tendencies  — Proposed  Parliamentary  Reforms 
— Ministerial  Crises  — Party  Control. 

CHILE  has  a political  history  that  marks  an 
isolated  chapter  among  the  Spanish-American 
Republics.  Its  unique  and  significant  feature  is  four 
successive  and  peaceful  presidencies  of  ten  years  each. 
The  phenomenon  is  worthy  of  study.  The  tributes 
which  the  Chileans  pay  themselves  are  merited.  Their 
national  life  has  been  a growth  and  not  a series  of 
spasms. 

After  independence  was  achieved  through  O’Higgins 
in  i8i8,  the  Liberator  was  sent  into  exile,  because  he 
sought  to  exert  kingly  powers  as  a dictator  under  the 
merest  crust  of  republican  forms.  The  riot  of  liberty 
followed  for  ten  or  twelve  years  with  frequent  revolu- 
tions, changes  of  rulers,  and  unavailing  efforts  to  form 
a stable  government.  The  anarchy  of  license  under 
the  mask  of  popular  institutions  reached  its  height 
during  the  period  from  1828  to  1833,  when  the  Lib- 
eral party  — that  is,  liberal  in  name — was  in  power. 


CHILE’S  POLITICAL  HISTORY  233 


Then  came  the  Conservatives,  or  reactionists.  They 
forced  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  1833,  which 
remained  unchanged  for  thirty-seven  years.  Order 
and  tranquillity  was  the  motto,  and  genuine  republi- 
canism was  choked  in  order  that  a government  of  law 
might  live. 

Under  this  Constitution  the  colonial  despotism 
differed  only  from  that  of  Spain  in  that  it  was  exer- 
cised by  family  groups,  who  controlled  the  Executive, 
rather  than  by  a viceroyal  representative  of  the  distant 
monarchy.  It  was  easy  to  suspend  the  Constitution 
and  to  put  the  whole  country  under  martial  law. 
The  promptness  with  which  this  was  done  in  the 
emergencies  undoubtedly  prevented  the  series  of  rev- 
olutions that  cursed  other  South  American  countries. 
It  was  constitutional  for  the  Executive  to  abrogate 
the  organic  law  when  the  opposition  got  too  active. 
The  party  in  control  under  this  Constitution  of  1833 
always  was  known  as  the  Conservatives,  and  the  oppo- 
sition in  a general  way  as  the  Liberals.  Sometimes 
a faction  of  the  Conservatives  would  split  off  and 
attempt  a revolution  ; sometimes  the  conservative  ele- 
ment was  really  liberal  in  character,  but  not  in  name. 

From  1833  to  1873  Chile  had  four  presidents, 
all  elected  and  rejected  under  constitutional  forms. 
These  chief  magistrates  were  Joaquin  Prieto,  Manuel 
Bulnes,  Manuel  Montt,  and  Jose  Joaquin  Perez. 
During  General  Bulnes’  administration  an  army  up- 
rising was  attempted;  during  that  of  President  Montt 
a revolution  started  at  Copiapo  in  the  North.  There 
were  also  other  disturbances.  But  all  of  them  were 
suppressed  without  long  periods  of  civil  dissensions, 
and  though  liberty  seemed  to  be  smothered  under 


234 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


councils  of  war  and  the  absolute  suspension  of  indi- 
vidual rights,  it  was  a hardy  plant  and  after  a brief 
period  would  begin  to  grow  again. 

Under  the  Constitution  of  1833  the  presidential 
term  was  five  years,  and  there  was  no  prohibition 
against  a second  term.  In  this  manner  each  presi- 
dent reelected  himself  and  enjoyed  a ten  years’  tenure. 
But  he  could  not  have  done  this  if  the  privileged 
classes,  the  family  groups,  had  not  sustained  him. 
They  were  aggressive  in  defending  their  share  in 
the  oligarchy,  and  their  individual  independence  they 
maintained  as  sturdily  as  did  the  English  barons  who 
forced  the  Magna  Charta  from  King  John.  With 
the  national  development  assured,  the  country  began 
to  chafe  under  the  recognition  of  the  autocratic  power 
which  was  vested  in  the  Executive,  and  to  feel  that  the 
growth  which  would  not  have  been  possible  without 
the  colonial  despotism  under  republican  form  had  now 
reached  the  full  measure.  Consequently  the  agitation 
for  liberalizing  the  Constitution  began  and  was  con- 
tinued persistently  instead  of  intermittently.  In  the 
decade  from  i860  to  1870  the  Conservative  reaction- 
aries were  pressed  so  vigorously  and  were  on  the 
defensive  so  constantly  that  the  harsh  features  of  the 
Constitution  were  modified  in  the  spirit  if  not  in 
the  letter. 

During  the  life  of  this  old  parchment  and  the  four 
Executives  who  put  it  into  practice,  — for  there  never 
was  a dictator  among  them, — Chile  consolidated  her 
domestic  interests,  inaugurated  the  building  of  railways, 
and  by  the  navy  and  other  means  prepared  for  the 
war  which  it  was  felt  one  day  would  be  had  with  Peru 
and  Bolivia.  In  view  of  all  that  was  accomplished,  it 


CHILE’S  POLITICAL  HISTORY  235 


can  hardly  be  said  that  the  Constitution  of  1833  and 
the  power  of  the  one  hundred  families  as  exerted  under 
that  instrument,  were  bad  for  the  country.  But  a 
change  was  inevitable,  and  in  1870  the  Constitution 
was  reformed  in  a manner  to  bring  it  within  the  sphere 
of  modern  principles  of  government  and  remove  its  ag- 
gressive antagonism  to  republican  institutions.  Greater 
independence  was  conceded  to  the  judicial  power,  and 
larger  liberty  of  action  to  the  municipal  authorities, 
while  the  electoral  right  of  the  citizen  was  broadened. 
The  presidential  term  remained  at  five  years,  but  suc- 
cessive elections  were  prohibited  so  that  the  ten-year 
tenure  could  not  continue. 

Frederico  Errazuriz  was  the  first  of  the  Executives 
to  serve  under  the  amended  Constitution.  His  term 
was  peaceful  and  progressive,  but  was  devoted  chiefly 
to  preparing  for  war  by  ordering  the  construction  of 
the  armored  cruisers  which  rendered  the  Chilean  navy 
so  formidable.  He  was  succeeded  by  Anibal  Pinto, 
who  had  served  in  the  cabinet  as  Minister  of  War. 
A financial  and  economic  crisis  supervened  during  his 
administration,  and  in  its  closing  year  was  fought  the 
war  of  the  Pacific,  with  Chile  as  the  antagonist  of  al- 
lied Bolivia  and  Peru.  Chile’s  sweeping  victories  not 
only  gave  her  the  nitrate  territory  which  she  exacted 
as  war  indemnity;  it  made  her  the  most  aggressive 
and  the  most  feared  Power  in  South  America. 

It  is  only  with  the  internal  political  history  that  I 
propose  to  deal.  A Chilean  historian  naively  remarks 
that  it  had  been  the  practice  for  the  outgoing  presi- 
dent to  intervene  in  the  elections  in  order  to  insure 
the  election  of  a candidate  of  his  own  choosing. 
President  Pinto  announced  his  purpose  of  repudiating 


236 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


this  practice,  yet  he  was  succeeded  by  Domingo  Santa 
Maria,  who  had  held  the  portfolio  of  Foreign  Relations 
in  his  cabinet.  President  Santa  Maria  found  himself 
antagonized  by  the  Conservatives  and  one  wing  of  the 
Liberals.  He  tried  to  organize  an  administration 
party  and  to  control  the  election  of  senators  and 
deputies  in  the  Congress,  but  failed.  This  was  a 
clear  manifestation  of  the  inability  of  the  Executive 
to  rule  without  the  consent  of  the  families  who  com- 
posed the  various  political  groups.  But  the  issue  be- 
tween the  Executive  and  the  families  was  to  be  forced 
by  a more  resolute  hand.  Its  outcome  was  dramatic, 
a tragedy  for  the  nation  and  a tragedy  for  one  of  the 
country’s  greatest  men. 

Jose  Manuel  Balmaceda  was  chosen  president  in 
1886,  after  a sharp  electoral  struggle  in  which  the  Con- 
servatives and  the  reactionary  faction  of  the  Liberals 
opposed  him.  He  sought  to  conciliate  the  latter  by 
calling  some  of  them  to  his  cabinet.  He  had  grand 
plans  for  the  development  of  the  nation,  and  he  wanted 
a united  support. 

President  Balmaceda  strengthened  the  naval  and 
military  establishment  out  of  the  nitrate  proceeds;  but 
his  guiding  ambition  was  to  apply  them  to  public  im- 
provements, railways,  roads,  harbors,  and  schools.  The 
Conservative-Liberal  fusion  thwarted  him.  It  pre- 
vailed in  the  Congress,  and  demanded  that  he  name 
ministers  satisfactory  to  the  majority.  This  he  claimed 
was  in  violation  of  his  constitutional  prerogatives. 
The  Congress  refused  to  authorize  the  taxes  and  ap- 
propriations necessary  for  carrying  on  the  government. 
When  for  any  reason  this  was  not  done  at  the  regular 
session,  the  practice  had  been  to  convoke  the  Congress 


CHILE’S  POLITICAL  HISTORY  237 


in  extra  sessions.  President  Balmaceda,  wearied  with 
the  controversy,  abstained  from  taking  this  action. 
On  January  i,  1891,  he  announced  that  the  appropri- 
ations for  the  current  year  would  be  the  same  as  during 
the  previous  year. 

Bloody,  merciless  civil  war  followed.  The  Con- 
gressionalists  proclaimed  that  their  contest  was  against 
Executive  usurpation.  They  removed  to  Valparaiso, 
and  took  refuge  on  the  warships  which  had  been  pre- 
pared for  them.  They  named  Captain  Jorge  Montt 
as  Commander  of  the  National  Squadron.  President 
Balmaceda  declared  Montt  and  the  naval  commanders 
who  obeyed  his  orders  traitors.  The  President  organ- 
ized an  army,  while  the  navy  sailed  for  Iquique  and 
seized  the  nitrate  provinces. 

The  Congressionalists  instituted  their  provisional 
government  there  to  carry  on  the  war  against  Presi- 
dent Balmaceda.  They  organized  troops  which  were 
transported  to  Valparaiso  and  defeated  the  garrison. 
A second  victory  at  Placilla  and  they  were  in  control 
of  the  capital,  welcomed  by  the  populace  as  liberators. 

Balmaceda  took  refuge  in  the  Argentine  Legation. 
Flight  across  the  Andes  was  open  to  him,  but  he  dis- 
dained it.  He  waited  calmly  till  September  19,  the 
day  on  which  his  constitutional  term  as  president 
ended,  wrote  farewell  letters  to  his  family  and  friends, 
arrayed  himself  in  black,  pointed  a revolver  at  his 
right  temple,  discharged  it,  and  died  instantly.  His 
policies  live. 

I have  recalled  these  swiftly  tragic  events  without 
any  intention  of  opening  up  controverted  subjects. 
My  purpose  has  been  to  sketch  them  only  in  their 
relations  to  the  political  system  of  Chile  as  it  exists 


238 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


to-day,  for  they  influenced  it  and  caused  modifications 
of  the  Constitution  restrictive  of  the  Executive  power. 

By  the  books  the  form  of  Chilean  government  is 
popular  representative.  To  the  foreign  observer  the 
wonder  grows  that  a system  which  gives  such  inor- 
dinate power  to  small  groups  of  families,  who  call 
themselves  political  parties,  and  which  binds  the  Ex- 
ecutive hand  and  foot,  can  prove  satisfactory.  But  it 
suits  Chile,  or  has  suited  her,  and  the  country  pro- 
gresses. That  is  the  conclusive  answer.  If  Chile 
chooses  to  make  a strait-jacket  for  herself,  that  is  her 
own  concern,  and  if  in  that  strait-jacket  she  expands 
and  develops  a progressive  national  life  she  may  be 
permitted  to  take  her  own  way  and  her  own  time  for 
freeing  herself. 

But  what  of  the  governing  classes  ? Who  compose 
them  ? The  Chilean  professional  man  or  merchant 
or  government  official  will  tell  you,  as  he  told  me, 
that  there  are  no  class  distinctions,  and  at  the  same 
time  will  take  pride  in  drawing  himself  and  his  fellows 
far  apart  from  the  masses.  It  has  been  said  that  a 
hundred  families  have  ruled  Chile  for  seventy-five 
years.  The  numeral  might  be  doubled  or  trebled,  but 
the  truth  would  not  be  changed.  The  landed  inter- 
ests, the  commercial  community,  and  the  Church  have 
ruled  the  country,  and  it  must  be  said  that  they  have 
ruled  well.  They  may  accuse  one  another  of.  being 
false  to  their  trusteeship,  but  the  foreign  observer  is 
not  impressed  with  this  charge.  All  of  them  have 
worked  together  to  make  Chile  the  powerful  and 
aggressive  little  nation  that  she  is,  and  have  secured 
her  the  respect  that  the  rest  of  South  America  has 
given  her.  But  they  have  taken  all  the  benefits  for 


CHILE’S  POLITICAL  HISTORY  239 


themselves,  — the  honors  and  emoluments  of  public 
office,  the  opportunities  for  wealth  that  came  from  the 
nitrate  fields,  the  chances  for  careers  that  have  been 
afforded  by  the  army  and  the  navy.  It  may  almost  be 
said  that  the  army  and  navy  exist  for  the  employment 
of  the  one  hundred  families. 

Chile  herself  is  not  a country  of  great  private  for- 
tunes. One  or  two  families  have  been  enriched  by 
mines,  a half-dozen  by  banking  and  commercial  devel- 
opment, a larger  number  by  the  nitrates.  But  when 
it  is  all  said,  the  Chilean  hundred  families  are  kin  of 
moderate  means.  Their  main  sources  of  income  are 
from  their  landed  estates.  These  land-owners  do  not 
tax  themselves  heavily.  As  in  the  majority  of  coun- 
tries of  Spanish  America,  the  government  imposts  are 
laid  on  the  revenue  from  the  land  and  not  on  the 
land  itself.  The  landed  proprietors  contrive  that  these 
imposts  shall  be  light. 

The  existing  regimen,  as  studied  on  paper,  is  almost 
a complete  reversal  of  the  regimen  under  which  for 
nearly  half  a century  Chilean  nationality  was  devel- 
oped and  the  little  ribbon  of  a republic  was  consoli- 
dated and  made  strong.  The  old  form  was  a colonial 
despotism,  with  monarchical  powers  for  the  Executive. 
The  present  system  is  congressional  despotism  with- 
out republican  powers  for  the  Executive,  but  under 
both  forms  the  one  hundred  families  have  ruled.  The 
president  is  selected  by  electors  chosen  in  the  prov- 
inces through  direct  suffrage,  since  there  is  no  such 
thing  as  provincial  legislatures. 

Intense  jealousy  of  the  power  of  the  Executive  is 
shown.  Politically  the  president  of  Chile  is  a cipher, 
though  he  has  vast  power  in  relation  to  public  contracts. 


240 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


But  he  can  rule  only  as  the  instrument  of  the  Congress. 
Not  only  does  the  ministerial  system  prevail  in  its 
most  extreme  form,  so  that  it  is  not  unusual  for  the 
cabinet  to  be  changed  half  a dozen  times  within  a 
short  period,  as  happened  in  1903  and  1904,  but  a 
further  limitation  is  put  on  the  president’s  authority 
by  the  Council  of  State.  He  governs  through  this 
body,  which  is  composed  of  eleven  members,  the  ma- 
jority of  whom  are  selected  by  the  Congress,  each 
branch  naming  three.  The  remaining  five  can  be 
chosen  by  the  president  only  from  designated  func- 
tionaries, one  of  them  always  being  the  Archbishop. 
Thus  it  cannot  be  said  that  there  are  three  coordi- 
nate powers,  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial,  in  the 
Chilean  government. 

In  operation  there  is  no  equilibrium  of  executive 
and  legislative  powers,  because  Chile  is  governed, 
ruled  or  misruled,  by  the  legislative  branch.  The 
authority  of  the  Congress  is  very  extensive,  and  it 
never  sleeps  on  its  rights.  Usually  it  keeps  the 
president  awake  seeing  how  they  can  be  respected 
and  executive  policies  at  the  same  time  be  carried 
out.  An  election  for  Congress  is  not  greatly  different 
from  a similar  event  in  the  United  States.  The  par- 
ties nominate  their  candidates,  usually  after  a caucus. 
Minority  representation  obtains.  Electioneering  is 
done  through  the  newspapers,  through  meetings,  and 
through  placards.  The  placards  cut  a very  extensive 
figure.  The  manifestoes  of  the  candidates,  their  allo- 
cutions and  appeals  to  the  voters,  are  printed  in  type 
so  big  that  the  one-eyed  man  must  see  and  stop  to 
read. 

Election  methods  in  many  respects  are  patterned 


CHILE’S  POLITICAL  HISTORY  241 


after  the  United  States,  and  it  is  considered  fair  pol- 
itics for  the  party  which  gets  control  of  the  voting 
machinery  to  use  its  advantage  without  particular  re- 
gard for  the  will  of  the  voters  as  manifested  in  the 
ballots.  An  example  of  this  was  given  me  which 
showed  that  Chilean  politicians  have  a fine  sense  of 
humor,  — one  which  would  be  appreciated  by  Tam- 
many or  by  Philadelphia.  Mr.  George  Asta-Barragua, 
who  related  the  incident,  had  lived  in  Washington 
when  his  father  was  minister  to  the  United  States, 
and  could  enjoy  the  pleasantries  of  politics  in  either 
country. 

The  contest  was  very  bitter  between  two  candi- 
dates who  might  be  disguised  as  Lopez  and  Martinez, 
those  names  being  as  common  as  Smith  and  Jones. 
The  friends  of  Martinez  secured  a majority  in  the 
election  board,  but  Lopez  had  the  privilege  of  naming 
the  minority  member,  one  Rodriguez.  The  ballots 
deposited  were  evenly  distributed.  The  majority  of 
the  board  calmly  counted  all  of  them  for  Martinez. 
Rodriguez  protested,  but  without  avail.  The  Mar- 
tinez faction  had  determined  that  in  this  precinct 
there  should  not  be  one  vote  for  Lopez.  After 
numerous  energetic  and  violent  protests,  Rodriguez 
saw  that  the  game  was  against  him,  and  only  varied 
the  proceedings  by  violent  protests  in  the  nature  of 
shaking  his  fist  under  the  noses  of  his  co-judges.  Fi- 
nally he  contented  himself  with  shrugging  his  shoul- 
ders, and  the  proceedings  went  on  good-naturedly. 
His  co-judges  joked  him,  and  he  jested  with  them. 

The  last  thing  to  be  done  was  for  the  judges  them- 
selves to  cast  their  ballots.  Then  Rodriguez  made 
his  final  stand  and  delivered  a little  speech  to  the 

i6 


242 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


other  judges.  It  was  in  substance  as  follows  : “ Gen- 
tlemen, I recognize  that  you  are  two  against  one.  I 
won’t  say  that  we  would  n’t  have  done  the  same  if  we 
had  been  two  against  one.  But  now  that  the  farce  is 
nearly  over,  I have  one  request  to  make,  which  as 
honorable  gentlemen  you  surely  will  grant.  It  would 
be  scandalous  if,  with  myself  as  the  representative 
of  Lopez,  the  word  was  circulated  that  I did  not  vote 
for  him.  Therefore  my  request,  honorable  associates, 
is  that  I may  cast  my  ballot  and  have  it  counted  for 
Lopez.” 

His  honorable  associates  conceded  that  it  was  his 
duty  to  cast  his  ballot.  He  did  it  with  the  name 
LOPEZ  in  great  black  letters.  His  honorable  as- 
sociates calmly  counted  the  ballot  for  Martinez. 
Rodriguez  protested  energetically.  Colleague  No.  i 
picked  up  the  ballot,  remarking,  “ There  is  no  vote 
here  for  Lopez.”  Then  he  held  it  up  and  said  to 
Colleague  No.  2,  “ Do  you  see  anything  of  the  name 
of  Lopez  here?”  Colleague  No.  2 slowly  spelled 
out,  “ M-A-R-T-I-N-E-Z.”  Rodriguez  then  gave 
it  up,  and  the  vote  of  the  precinct  as  returned  showed, 
for  Martinez,  267  ; for  Lopez,  o. 

I was  assured  that  this  was  an  actual  occurrence, 
and  it  certainly  was  a fine  exhibition  of  campaign 
humor. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  a part  of  the 
political  system,  and  is  a political  power  in  Chile, 
although  there  is  no  discrimination  against  Protes- 
tant forms  of  worship.  In  1813,  during  the  struggle 
for  independence.  Bishop  Villadres  preached  in  the 
name  of  God  war  against  the  patriots.  Bishop  An- 
dreu  preached  war  against  the  King’s  soldiers.  Thus 


CHILE’S  POLITICAL  HISTORY  243 


the  Church  was  not  arrayed  wholly  against  the  pa- 
triots. They  recognized  it  in  the  Constitution,  and 
it  receives  State  aid. 

While  the  influence  of  the  hierarchy  in  the  main 
has  been  reactionary,  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  have 
been  politic  enough  not  to  antagonize  the  ruling  fam- 
ily groups.  When  they  have  sought  to  do  so,  they 
have  been  worsted. 

The  Chilean  government  is  measurably  independ- 
ent of  ecclesiastical  dictation.  It  always  has  insisted 
on  its  right  to  nominate  the  Archbishop,  and  when 
Rome  has  been  unwilling  to  recognize  this  nomina- 
tion the  Archbishopric  has  remained  vacant.  That  was 
the  condition  for  several  years  previous  to  Balma- 
ceda’s  election  as  president.  Then  a compromise  was 
effected  by  the  Vatican  recognizing  the  choice  of  the 
administration.  A Papal  legate  is  maintained  at  San- 
tiago, and  the  intrigues  and  manoeuvres  to  give  him 
precedence  have  caused  unpleasantness  in  the  Diplo- 
matic Corps.  Of  late  years  the  Church  influence  has 
been  decidedly  reactionary.  This  was  accentuated  on 
the  death  of  Pope  Leo,  when  the  Bishop  took  occa- 
sion to  preach  a political  sermon,  aimed  not  only  at 
the  Italian  government  but  at  Liberal  governments 
everywhere.  The  leading  public  men  resented  this 
reactionary  tendency.  When  the  priests  expelled  from 
France  sought  an  asylum  in  Chile,  they  were  frigidly 
received. 

The  efforts  to  reform  the  political  system  relate 
both  to  the  executive  and  to  the  legislative  branches. 
One  group  wants  the  vice-president  chosen,  as  in  the 
United  States,  to  succeed  to  the  Executive  functions 
on  the  death  or  incapacity  of  the  president.  Under 


244 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


the  present  form  there  is  no  elected  vice-president. 
That  functionary  is  the  Minister  of  the  Interior,  and 
usually  he  is  a member  of  the  Plouse  or  of  the  Senate. 
When  the  president  desires  to  forego  temporarily 
the  responsibilities  of  office  or  becomes  ill,  he  can 
withdraw  and  turn  the  administration  over  to  the  vice- 
president.  The  latter  official  during  the  interim  exer- 
cises all  the  powers  of  the  chief  magistrate,  but  in 
case  of  the  president’s  death  a new  Executive  is 
chosen  to  fill  out  the  term.  The  agitation  for  an 
elective  vice-president  is  not  very  pronounced,  though 
it  may  be  made  a part  of  the  programme  of  one  or 
the  other  of  the  political  groups. 

The  movement  for  a change  with  regard  to  the 
Congress  is  more  definite.  One  phase  of  it  relates  to 
the  form.  Some  want  to  dispense  with  the  formality 
which  takes  place  at  the  opening  of  Congress  when 
the  president  is  escorted  to  the  hall  of  the  Sessions  by 
the  troops,  is  attended  by  the  cabinet,  and  delivers  his 
message  in  person  in  the  presence  of  the  Diplomatic 
Corps  and  of  distinguished  officials.  It  is  not  a live 
question.  I attended  an  opening  session  in  company 
with  Minister  Wilson,  and  thought  that  the  message 
acquired  dignity  through  its  ceremonial  delivery. 

The  vital  reform  which  many  Chilean  public  men 
think  necessary  in  order  that  national  policies  may 
be  carried  forward  and  the  government  placed  in 
harmony  with  popular  sentiment,  is  a complete  over- 
turning of  the  present  parliamentary  system,  with  its 
frequent  and  ridiculous  ministerial  crises,  the  conse- 
quent cabinet  changes,  and  the  interruptions  in  the 
Executive’s  policy.  The  theory  of  parliamentary 
government  is  carried  to  an  extreme  which  hardly 


CHILE’S  POLITICAL  HISTORY  245 


could  be  conceived  of  in  England.  It  would  make  a 
Frenchman  envious  of  the  ease  with  which  ministries 
can  be  upset  and  new  ministries  set  up  to  be  over- 
thrown in  their  turn.^  It  is  a panorama  of  lightning 
parliamentary  changes.  The  consequence  of  the  pres- 
ent system  is  to  continue  the  power  of  the  family 
groups  who  call  themselves  by  various  names  and  who 
may  or  may  not  reflect  distinct  political  tendencies. 
All  of  them  must  be  represented  in  the  cabinet.  Occa- 
sionally by  means  of  a coalition  or  a fusion  the  Execu- 
tive may  secure  something  like  a political  majority, 
but  it  does  not  hold,  because  the  elements  composing 
it  have  too  many  selfish  interests  and  too  many  in- 
dividual ambitions  to  gratify.  Sometimes,  too,  the 
House  may  be  satisfied  with  the  cabinet,  while  the 
Senate  refuses  to  accept  it.  That  was  the  condition 
in  the  Fall  of  1904,  when  the  Liberal  Alliance  was  the 
power  behind  the  ministries. 

The  leading  men  who  are  agitating  for  a reform  are 
radical  in  their  programme,  for  they  want  Chile  to 
adopt  the  practice  of  the  United  States,  and  nothing 
can  be  more  opposite  than  our  own  system  and  that 
which  now  obtains  in  Chile.  These  reformers  would 
have  the  Executive  sustained  by  a political  party  in  the 

^ The  Chilean  correspondent  of  a London  newspaper  gave  this  illus- 
tration: “Valparaiso,  February  ii.  The  changes  effected  in  the  com- 
position of  the  Chilean  Ministry,  and  especially  the  Finance  Department, 
have  at  times  been  so  frequent  that  not  very  long  ago  both  the  British 
and  the  United  States  Ministers  informed  the  President  that  for  the 
future  they  would  be  unable  to  recognize  any  change.  They  complained, 
not  without  sufficient  reason,  that  no  sooner  had  they  entered  into  arrange- 
ments with  one  Minister  of  Finance  than  these  had  to  be  suspended  and 
commenced  de  novo  with  his  successor,  who,  again,  at  the  final  stages, 
referred  the  foreign  representatives  to  his  successor  at  the  Treasury 
Department." 


246  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


Congress ; but  even  when  he  may  not  have  a partisan 
majority  back  of  him,  they  would  have  his  administra- 
tion, chosen  as  it  is  for  five  years,  assured  the  voting 
of  the  necessary  appropriations  and  the  power  to  con- 
tinue the  policy  on  which  he  was  elected.  That,  they 
argue,  would  give  continued  internal  tranquillity  and 
strength  abroad.  This  was  lacking  to  Balmaceda,  and 
its  lack  caused  him  to  defy  the  Congress  and  go  out- 
side the  Constitution.  A long  time  must  pass  before 
Chilean  public  sentiment  can  be  educated  up  to  the 
point  where  a hostile  partisan  majority  in  the  Congress 
will  not  dare  to  refuse  to  vote  the  ordinary  appropria- 
tions of  the  government.  When  that  point  is  reached, 
there  will  be  simply  two  political  parties  instead  of 
half  a dozen  groups  centring  around  individuals. 

When  I was  in  Chile  in  1903,  there  were  four  par- 
ties who  were  recognized,  and  these  were  split  into  so 
many  sections  that  it  was  hard  to  distinguish  them. 
The  parties  were  the  Liberals,  the  Radicals,  the  Con- 
servatives, and  the  Social  Democrats,  or  Populists. 
But  the  Liberal  party  was  composed  of  middle-of-the- 
road  Liberals,  moderate  Liberals,  and  liberal  Demo- 
crats, while  the  Conservatives  were  divided  into  regular 
Conservatives  and  clerical  Conservatives,  with  a shad- 
ing off  into  minor  groups.  The  general  tendencies 
were  clear,  and  an  alignment  was  forming  between 
Liberals  of  all  shades  in  order  to  combat  the  Conser- 
vatives. The  growth  of  the  Liberals  is  a revival  of 
the  Balmaceda  policies.  Their  success  means  reforms 
in  the  parliamentary  system,  more  freedom  for  the 
Executive,  and  perhaps  a broader  foreign  policy  in- 
cluding the  frank  recognition  of  the  influence  on  the 
Panama  Canal  on  all  the  Pacific  coast  of  South 


CHILE’S  POLITICAL  HISTORY  247 


America.  It  is  generally  assumed  that  no  president 
can  now  be  elected  in  Chile  who  is  not  satisfactory 
to  the  Balmacedists.  President  Jerman  Riesco,  who 
was  chosen  in  1901,  gave  a liberal  and  temperate 
administration. 

But  these  tentative  suggestions  of  reform  in  the 
political  system,  and  even  the  tendencies  in  regard  to 
public  policies  are  only  surface  ebullitions  if  they  are 
studied  without  an  insight  into  the  deeper  social  and 
economic  conditions,  for  Chile  has  social  and  economic 
questions  of  a more  pronounced  character  than  any 
other  country  in  South  America.  I defer  their  analy- 
sis for  another  chapter. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


PALPITATING  SOCIAL  QUESTIONS 

Existence  of  the  Roto  Discovered — Mob  Rule  in  Valparaiso  — 
Indian  and  Caucasian  Race  Mixture  — Disquieting  Social 
Phenomena  — Grievances  against  the  Church  — Transition  to 
the  Proletariat  — Lack  of  Army  and  Navy  Opportunity  — 
Not  Unthrifty  as  a Class  — Showings  of  Santiago  Savings 
Bank  — Excessive  Mortality  — Need  of  State  Sanitation  — 
Discussion  of  Economic  Relation — Changes  in  National  Ten- 
dencies — Industrial  Policies  to  Placate  the  Roto. 

IN  the  fabric  of  Chilean  social  organization  the  warp 
is  the  individual  unit  known  as  the  roto.  The 
roto  constitutes  the  mass.  Pelucon,  aristocrat,  is  a 
term  transmitted  from  the  old  regime.  Violent  objec- 
tion is  made  to  its  use  at  the  present  day  on  the 
ground  that  there  are  no  privileged  classes  and  that  it 
never  had  more  than  a restricted  meaning.  But  it 
describes  the  antithesis  of  the  roto  since  his  evolution 
into  the  proletariat  began,  and  it  typifies  a recognized 
social  distinction,  so  that  its  use  is  permissible.  Pelu- 
con  comes  within  the  designation  of  the  governing 
classes  and  the  one  hundred  families,  and  does  not 
require  further  explanation. 

One  morning  in  May,  1903,  the  Chilean  govern- 
ment and  the  foreign  residents  awakened  to  the  exist- 
ence of  the  roto  as  an  organized  element  in  society, 
with  destructive  capabilities  and  the  courage  of  de- 
structive tendencies.  Disputes  with  the  steamship 
companies  had  resulted  in  a strike.  That  morning 


SOCIAL  QUESTIONS 


249 


the  mob  seized  Valparaiso  and  took  to  burning  prop- 
erty, pillaging,  and  killing.  It  was  a wild  mob,  but  it 
had  perception  and  direction.  It  burned  the  offices 
of  the  Chilean  corporation  known  as  the  South  Ameri- 
can Steamship  Company,  and  undertook  to  sack  one 
of  the  newspapers,  but  it  left  unharmed  the  property 
of  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company,  which  was 
a British  corporation.  Its  grievances  against  both 
companies  were  the  same,  but  this  Chilean  mob  would 
give  no  ground  for  foreign  intervention. 

The  authorities  were  blamed  for  the  demoralization 
which  the  strike  developed.  It  was  charged  that  the 
forces  were  at  hand  to  quell  the  disorder,  and  that  a 
firm  show  of  strength  would  have  saved  the  hundred 
lives  which  were  sacrificed  before  the  rioting  and  sacking 
were  ended.  The  inquiry  was  made  why  five  hundred 
marines  who  were  available  were  not  utilized.  The 
sinister  reply  was  that  they  had  refused  to  be  used,  that 
they  had  been  on  the  point  of  mutiny  when  it  was  at- 
tempted to  use  them.  They  were  of  the  roto  class,  re- 
cruited from  the  same  ranks  as  the  strikers.  The  exact 
tru*-n  never  got  to  the  public.  The  Chilean  government 
vindicated  its  ability  to  maintain  order  and  by  the 
presence  of  warships  and  of  troops  silenced  the  clamor 
of  the  timid  English  and  French  residents  who  were  call- 
ing for  cruisers  to  be  sent  by  their  own  governments. 

Ultimately  the  strike  was  adjusted.  But  the  condi- 
tions along  the  coast  as  far  as  Pisagua  also  were 
bad.  They  were  especially  threatening  at  the  nitrate 
shipping-ports.  The  national  authorities  kept  a crui- 
ser at  Iquique,  and  moved  down  from  farther  north 
additional  troops.  An  outbreak  of  bubonic  plague 
and  the  practical  cessation  of  all  industry  helped  to 


250 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


prevent  the  repetition  of  the  scenes  that  had  been 
witnessed  at  Valparaiso.  Yet  months  afterward  the 
embers  of  unrest  at  Iquique  were  smouldering,  and 
official  commissions  were  reporting  “ remedies  for  the 
grievances  of  the  working-classes.”  A chain  of  trades 
unions  under  various  names,  cooperative  labor  socie- 
ties, mutual  aid  associations,  brotherhoods  of  working- 
men, seamen’s  unions,  was  in  existence.  The  social 
question  was  the  palpitating  one.  The  restlessness  of 
the  masses  of  the  population,  including  the  roto 
classes,  found  another  exemplification  in  October, 
1905,  when  Santiago  for  a time  was  under  the  control 
of  rioters.  The  immediate  cause  was  the  agitation 
against  the  tax  on  the  importation  of  cattle  from  Argen- 
tine. Back  of  it  was  the  old-time  discontent  and  the 
feeling  that  the  government  was  being  managed  for  the 
classes  at  the  expense  of  the  masses.  The  high  cost  of 
meat  was  something  that  came  home  to  the  bulk  of  the 
population,  and  it  took  to  rioting,  killing,  and  wounding 
as  well  as  to  destroying  property  as  the  means  of  show- 
ing its  dissatisfaction.  The  rioting  was  not  stopped 
until  the  police  had  been  reenforced  by  the  troops. 

A generation  ago  J.  V.  Lastarria,  the  Chilean  dip- 
lomat and  historian,  asserted : “ The  Chileans  are  the 
most  homogeneous,  most  enlightened,  most  patriotic, 
and  most  united  people  of  Spanish  America,  and  they 
know  how  to  use  in  the  most  practical  and  most 
prudent  manner  their  political  rights.”  He  also  de- 
clared that  the  physical  and  social  elements  of  his 
country  explained  her  salvation  from  the  disastrous 
anarchy  which  the  other  Republics  had  suffered  and 
her  progress  in  all  spheres  of  human  activity. 

This  complacent  judgment  was  not  unjust,  but  in 


Group  of  Araucanian  Indian  Women 


F« 


SOCIAL  QUESTIONS 


251 


describing  his  countrymen  Senor  Lastarria  meant 
chiefly  the  higher  stratum,  the  governing  classes. 
When  he  wrote,  the  robust  race  mixture  was  yet  going 
on,  the  amalgam  of  peasant  northern  Spain  and  of  the 
Basque,  after  two  centuries  of  transplantation,  with  the 
fierce  Araucanian  Indian  blood.  Not  all  of  the  abo- 
riginal amalgam  has  been  Araucanian.  There  are  ten 
distinct  aboriginal  tribes  known  in  Chile,  and  in  the 
northern  part  the  mixture  has  been  more  that  of  the 
Indians  of  the  historic  Upper  Peru  or  Bolivia.  All 
of  these  tribes  have  been  habituated  to  hardship,  and 
the  grosser  qualities  of  civilization  have  been  devel- 
oped aggressively. 

The  Chilean  lov/er  stratum  of  to-day  is  far  from  the 
refinements  of  civilization.  Its  vices  and  its  virtues 
are  equally  strong.  Among  the  virtues  is  native  in- 
dependence. The  vices  are  of  crude,  half-conscious 
brute  power,  with  little  restraint  of  the  passions. 

Out  of  the  race  mixing  — the  mingling  of  European 
blood  not  always  of  the  best  and  the  Indian  stock,  with 
the  Araucanian  predominating  — has  come  the  roto. 
I studied  him  in  various  places  and  under  varied  con- 
ditions. He  is  not  an  individual  for  parlor-car  com- 
pany, or  an  agreeable  companion  as  to  the  physical 
senses  in  a journey  in  a second-class  train,  nor  yet  so 
unpromising  as  usually  he  is  painted.  In  the  ports  he 
is  found  as  a coast  product.  He  is  a longshoreman, 
stevedore,  boatman.  The  English  word  roustabout 
in  a measure  helps  to  describe  the  Chilean  roto,  but 
insufficiently.  It  gives  too  transitory  an  idea  of  the 
personality.  The  roto  is  no  wharf  rat.  He  is  a per- 
manent quantity,  a fixture  in  the  social  fabric  of  the 
State,  and  he  is  a trade  unionist. 


252 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


In  the  agricultural  regions  the  roto  class  is  peon 
and  is  not  so  marked,  but  it  is  the  basis  of  the  popu- 
lation. The  day  laborer  in  the  towns  of  the  North 
who  has  more  of  the  Aymara  Indian  blood  than  of  the 
Araucanian,  and  who  possesses  less  instinct  of  class 
organization  than  the  longshoreman,  also  shows  dis- 
content. This  wanderlust  is  one  of  the  characteristics 
of  the  Chilean  laborer.  He  is  born  a nomad.  Even 
the  most  highly  paid  laborers  in  the  nitrate  fields 
refuse  to  be  content  and  to  stay.  They  are  forever 
moving  on. 

The  outcome  of  the  events  of  1903  was  that 
Chile  discovered  she  had  a palpitating  social  question, 
and  began  to  seek  the  horizon  which  might  bound  the 
zone  of  unrest.  Among  the  social  phenomena  ob- 
served were  the  disproportion  between  the  deaths  and 
births,  the  excessive  child  mortality,  the  emigration 
of  Chilean  peons  to  Argentina,  the  constant  movement 
of  the  migratory  mass  apparently  without  aim,  and  the 
popular  fever  for  striking.  In  these  phenomena  were 
discovered  conditions  which  showed  the  actual  state  of 
the  lower  stratum,  but  the  horizon  was  not  complete. 
The  Chilean  observers  did  not  note  the  phenomenon 
of  the  roto’s  slow  perception  of  his  own  power,  and  his 
dawning  conviction  that  there  were  classes  in  the  State, 
and  that  in  some  way  his  class  was  down  in  the  abyss. 
He  was  becoming  a proletariat. 

The  roto  has  many  qualities  in  common  with  the 
higher  classes.  His  patriotism  is  fully  as  deep.  Hereto- 
fore he  has  been  willing  to  fight  at  the  dictation  of  the 
military  commander,  but  the  threatened  mutiny  of  the 
marines  was  a warning.  At  that  very  time  the  con- 
scription was  going  on,  and  an  uncommon  sullenness 


SOCIAL  QUESTIONS 


253 


was  shown  by  the  conscripts  in  the  interior,  and  a 
vague  resentment  against  being  enlisted  to  fight  their 
brothers.  This  was  when  the  necessity  of  employing 
the  army  to  break  the  strike  was  most  openly  discussed. 

In  relation  to  the  nitrate  fields  the  roto  fails  to  see 
that  the  high  wages  at  one  time  prevailing  there  helped 
him,  and  now  that  the  pay  is  dictated  by  the  trust  his 
resentment  grows.  He  has  a vivid  grievance  in  the 
payment  of  his  wages  in  scrip.  In  the  early  days  for- 
tunes were  made  out  of  the  saltpetre  beds  by  officials 
and  private  individuals  who  already  were  comparatively 
rich.  English  parvenus  little  better  than  day  laborers 
also  gained  riches.  But  the  Chilean  laborer  developed 
no  successful  nitrate  operator,  no  earner  of  day  wages 
who  became  a millionaire.  He  seems  to  have  been 
treasuring  this  up  until  the  culmination  has  come  and 
he  is  asking  the  question.  How  have  the  nitrates 
helped  me  ? Though  he  furnishes  the  chief  revenues 
of  the  State  and  though  he  is  not  heavily  taxed,  the 
proportion  he  bears  is  not  in  ratio  to  his  wealthy 
employer.  This  belief,  undoubtedly,  is  one  basis  of 
the  discontent.  It  may  be  summed  up  that  the  roto 
feels  that  he  is  no  better  off  than  if  Chile  did  not  draw 
an  enormous  income  from  the  export  tax  on  saltpetre. 

He  also  cherishes  a grievance  against  the  Church. 
Heretofore  his  devoutness  or  his  superstition  has 
been  one  of  the  bulwarks  of  the  hierarchy.  It  inter- 
fered little  with  his  crude  morality,  his  notions  of 
private  vengeance,  or  his  general  conduct  in  the  affairs 
of  life.  In  a certain  manner  he  venerated  the  priest 
and  the  symbols  of  ecclesiastical  authority,  and  could 
be  depended  on  to  do  whatever  was  put  upon  him. 
But  this  submissiveness  has  gone.  The  Church  is  a 


254 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


very  large  property -owner,  and  does  not  pay  taxes  in 
proportion  to  the  burdens  of  the  nation.  The  pro- 
letariat has  become  imbued  with  the  belief  that  its 
aggressions  are  directed  specially  against  him. 

This  feeling  in  part  may  be  due  to  the  spread  of 
socialistic  doctrines,  though  the  socialistic  propaganda 
in  itself  in  Chile  is  weak.  So  far  as  it  has  a standing, 
this  is  because  the  roto  in  his  protest  finds  the  move- 
ment the  only  available  vehicle  of  utterance  for  his 
dissatisfaction.  He  is  not  socialistic  by  nature,  be- 
cause what  he  takes  by  brute  force  from  his  weaker 
neighbor  he  expects  to  keep  for  himself  and  not  to 
turn  over  to  the  vague  entity  known  as  society.  The 
falling  away  of  the  roto  from  the  Church  is  because  of 
its  goods  and  property  which  escape  taxation,  because 
of  the  feeling  that  his  back  is  bent  to  the  pack  in  order 
that  a greedy  ecclesiastical  power  which  claims  spiritual 
dominion  over  him  may  exist  and  pamper  its  ministers 
in  luxurious  idleness. 

Another  cause  of  dissatisfaction,  which  a foreign 
observer  may  note  more  quickly  than  a native  one,  is 
the  feeling  of  resentment  that  there  is  no  opportunity 
for  him  in  the  army  and  navy.  He  forever  must  be 
of  the  ranks.  He  must  fight  the  battles,  but  always 
in  inferior  station.  The  enlisted  man  never  can  be 
anything  else.  Both  army  and  navy  draw  the  line  as 
severely  as  in  the  most  exclusive  military  organization 
of  Europe.  The  common  soldier  or  sailor  is  clay,  a 
mud  ball,  something  to  be  kicked,  but  never  to  be 
recognized  as  a human  being  with  aspirations  and  am- 
bitions. Yet  it  is  the  sailors  of  this  class,  as  much  as 
the  daring  commanding  officers,  who  by  their  bravery 
and  endurance  have  given  glory  to  the  Chilean  navy. 


SOCIAL  QUESTIONS 


255 


But  neither  naval  commander  nor  army  officer  yet 
realizes  that  this  clay  is  beginning  to  think,  and  to 
feel  that  something  is  wrong  in  the  political  organiza- 
tion of  the  State  when  he  who  sustains  the  State  is 
nothing. 

Among  the  qualities  of  the  roto,  whether  in  the 
army  or  the  navy  or  in  the  mass  of  the  population,  is 
persistence  in  his  prejudices.  He  is  not  easily  changed 
from  that  which  is  taught  him.  I was  in  Santiago 
during  the  celebration  of  the  peace  pacts  with  Argen- 
tina. The  governing  classes  and  the  merchants  entered 
heartily  into  those  festivities.  They  knew  that  the 
prevention  of  war  by  the  treaties  had  saved  the 
country  from  bankruptcy,  even  though  war  might 
have  brought  territorial  extension.  But  it  was  noticed 
everywhere  that  the  masses  took  no  part  in  the  dem- 
onstrations. They  either  were  surly  or  indifferent. 
They  had  been  taught  to  believe  that  Argentina  was 
an  enemy  with  whom  they  would  have  to  make  war 
and  from  whom  they  would  have  a chance  to  take 
spoils.  They  could  not  readily  change  about  and  join 
in  the  celebrations  of  peace. 

If  the  roto  in  such  a persistent  manner  retains  the 
lesson  that  has  been  taught  him,  how  much  greater 
will  be  his  doggedness  in  adhering  to  his  self-taught 
lesson  that  something  is  wrong  in  the  social  order,  and 
that  he  is  the  one  who  is  wronged  ? 

In  the  economic  discussion  of  the  social  movement, 
citations  will  be  made  of  the  lack  of  thrift  on  the  part 
of  the  roto  classes,  and  their  unwillingness  to  do  any- 
thing for  themselves.  This  is  loose  assumption,  which 
is  not  warranted.  On  the  seacoast  he  may  be  reck- 
less with  his  wages,  but  in  the  interior  this  is  not  true. 


256 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


and  I question  myself  whether  it  is  true  to  the  extent 
claimed  even  in  the  seaports.  In  Santiago  the  Caja 
de  AhorroSj  or  Savings  Bank,  has  between  49,000  and 

59.000  accounts.  The  total  deposits,  as  shown  in  a 
late  annual  report,  amounted  to  $3,625,000.  Out 
of  nearly  50,000  depositors,  only  355  had  balances  of 
$1,000  and  more.  Of  the  depositors  under  that  sum, 
1,409  were  soldiers  ; 730  were  private  employees  ; 3 1 1, 
servants;  1,020,  students;  342,  seamstresses;  255, 
merchants;  102,  farmers;  144,  shoemakers  ; 67,  laun- 
dresses ; and  3,225  were  set  down  as  without  pro- 
fession. Presumably  this  meant  unskilled  laborers. 
Santiago  and  its  suburbs  have  a population  of  300,000. 
While  the  aggregate  of  the  deposits  is  not  great,  the 
very  fact  that  the  Savings  Bank  carries  50,000  small 
accounts,  and  some  of  them  very  small  indeed,  in- 
dicates no  lack  of  thrift  on  the  part  of  the  mass  of 
the  population. 

In  seeking  the  horizon  of  the  social  question  one 
blot  which  may  be  remedied  has  been  laid  bare.  This 
is  the  excessive  mortality.  A cause  of  the  physical 
sturdiness  of  the  roto  who  reaches  manhood  is  un- 
doubtedly to  be  found  in  the  survival  of  the  fittest. 
That  brutal  doctrine  is  exemplified  in  him.  He  en- 
dures harsh  conditions  of  life,  lack  of  comforts,  want 
of  everything  that  is  decent  and  helpful,  and  when  he 
does  grow  up  it  is  as  a robust  animal  only  half  tamed 
by  nature. 

The  figures  on  this  subject  are  startling.  The 
annual  death  rate  has  been  placed  as  high  as  70  per 

1.000  and  frequently  it  is  given  as  50  per  1,000.  This 
is  correct  for  the  majority  of  the  towns  and  cities,  but 
does  not  apply  to  the  country  as  a whole.  The 


SOCIAL  QUESTIONS 


257 


official  statistics  for  a period  of  ten  years,  which  I 
examined,  did  not  exceed  an  average  of  35  per  1,000. 
But  even  that  is  nearly  double  the  normal  death  rate 
in  temperate  countries ; and  Chile,  not  being  in  the 
torrid  zone,  is  not  subject  to  yellow  fever  and  similar 
tropical  epidemics.  The  figures  showed  that  the  birth 
rate  and  the  death  rate  were  almost  balanced,  since  the 
birth  rate  ranged  from  35  to  37  per  1,000.  In  1895 
the  total  births  reported  were  110,000,  and  the  deaths 
92,000,  leaving  an  excess  of  18,000  births  over  deaths. 
In  1898  the  birth  excess  was  a little  larger.  But  in 
1901  the  births  were  116,000  and  the  deaths  111,000, 
giving  an  excess  of  only  5,000.  In  previous  years  the 
births  were  not  larger  and  even  have  fallen  below  the 
deaths.  In  a subsequent  year  a more  normal  con- 
dition was  shown,  the  births  numbering  115,813  and 
the  deaths  88,607.  ^wo  big  cities  no  natural 

increase  was  contributed  to  the  population.  In  Val- 
paraiso Province  with  243,000  inhabitants,  during  a 
twelvemonth  period  there  were  9,475  births  and  9,674 
deaths.  One  year  an  epidemic  of  measles  caused 
frightful  ravages.  In  the  year  1900,  in  the  city  of 
Valparaiso,  the  births  were  5,610  and  the  deaths  7,170, 
and  of  the  latter  2,245  were  infants  under  one  year  of 
age.  During  this  annual  period  the  death  rate  per 
1,000  in  Valparaiso  was  54.4.  In  Santiago  Province, 
with  a total  population  of  434,000,  the  births  num- 
bered 16,074,  and  the  deaths  17,798.  This  excess  was 
due  to  the  city  of  Santiago,  where  there  were  11,000 
births  and  12,500  deaths  in  a total  urban  population 
of  262,000.  The  mean  average  death  rate  is  a little 
higher  than  in  Valparaiso,  though  the  latter  is  subject 
to  the  vicissitudes  of  seaports.  In  a given  year  only 

17 


•258 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


one  city  of  more  than  10,000  inhabitants  showed  a 
death  rate  of  less  than  50  for  each  1,000.  This  was 
Antofagasta,  in  which  the  proportion  was  44  out  of 
every  1,000. 

Indifference  to  personal  comfort  and  the  inevitable 
results  of  unsanitary  living  have  helped  to  brutalize 
the  roto,  but  it  is  wide  of  the  mark  to  say  that  he  pre- 
fers this  existence.  Cleanly  and  sanitary  living  are  not 
so  repugnant  to  him.  What  he  needs  is  guidance  and 
example. 

On  the  part  of  the  State  there  is  a remedy  for  this 
condition.  University  settlements  and  similar  move- 
ments for  bettering  the  condition  of  the  poor  through 
individual  initiative  are  not  yet  practicable.  In  a 
government  where  Spanish  paternalism  is  inherited, 
hygiene  and  sanitation  are  emphatically  the  province  of 
the  State  and  of  the  municipalities  which  depend  on 
it,  since  they  do  not  enjoy  a large  measure  of  home 
rule.  A perception  of  this  truth  has  been  shown  in 
the  disposition  to  treat  the  roto’s  grievances  as  a social 
question  rather  than  as  a political  issue.  When  this 
perception  is  translated  into  definite  measures,  his  dis- 
content with  the  existing  order  will  become  less  men- 
acing. For  the  government  the  lowering  of  the  death 
rate  and  the  increase  of  the  birth  rate  per  thousand 
has  both  economic  and  political  significance.* 

^ A cabinet  minister  was  thus  quoted  on  this  subject  in  a foreign 
journal  : 

“ ‘You  may  put  in  the  most  up-to-date  drainage,  and  introduce  the 
most  admirable  sanitary  improvements,  but  you  cannot  induce  the  low- 
class  peons,  such  as  form  the  bulk  of  the  residents  of  this  and  other 
Chilean  cities,  to  use  them.  The  housing  arrangements  of  the  poorer 
classes  are  simply  indescribable,  and  they  live  like  animals,  crowded  together 
in  miserable  rooms  for  which  they  pay  an  exorbitant  price.  The  people 


SOCIAL  QUESTIONS 


259 


But  is  the  economic  and  industrial  relation  of  the 
roto  to  the  State  understood?  Yes.  How  often  I 
heard  it  discussed,  how  often  I listened  to  the  asser- 
tion made  by  Chileans,  that  Chile  as  a nation  has  a 
rotten  core,  that  the  anomaly  of  a government  riot- 
ously rich  through  a single  source  of  revenue  and  of 
a people  superlatively  poor,  cannot  long  continue  ! 

I sat  through  one  night  with  Senor  A,  and  listened 
to  his  eloquent  and  passionate  indictment  of  his  coun- 
try and  of  the  class  of  which  he  was  the  exponent, 
for  he  was  of  the  ruling  families.  Another  night  it 
was  with  Senor  B until  the  sun  was  breaking,  and  a 
third  time  it  was  with  Senor  C until  the  lingering 
habitues  of  the  club  were  calling  for  their  morning 
coffee.  The  talk  ran  in  the  same  vein.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  poor  must  be  bettered.  There  must  be 
a change  in  economic  policies ; dreams  of  conquest 
must  be  given  over ; the  national  revenues  must  be 
devoted  to  internal  improvements;  foreign  capital  must 


— and  especially  the  respectable  class  of  employees  — find  it  is  impossible 
to  secure  clean  and  wholesome  accommodation.  Even  the  smallest  rooms 
in  the  most  unattractive  houses  are  set  out  at  absurdly  high  rentals  — say 
from  $10  to  J15  (15/.  Jod.  to  zzs.  a month  each  room. 

“ ‘Does  the  Government,  then,  do  nothing  to  improve  or  control  the 
conditions  of  the  poor  classes  and  protect  them  from  the  extortions  and 
ill-treatment  of  the  landlords  ? 

“ ‘ Unfortunately,  no  kind  of  sanitary  or  habitation  laws  exist  at  the 
present  moment ; but  I have  often  talked  over  the  matter  with  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Republic,  and  both  he  and  I are  determined  to  do  something, 
if  we  can,  later  on.  Things  move  slowly  in  Chile,  you  know,  and, 
although  it  may  appear  rather  strange  to  you,  coming  from  a European 
country,  Chileans  are  not  accustomed  to  see,  and  do  not  expect,  radical 
alterations  effected  in  their  country.  However,  you  have  touched  upon  a 
most  important  social  question,  and  one  which  I have  had  much  at  heart 
myself.  Perhaps  we  may  be  able  to  do  something  in  the  direction  of 
improvement.’  ” 


260 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


be  encouraged  to  go  into  other  industries  than  the 
nitrate  gamble ; the  military  party  must  be  curbed. 

“Then,  Senor,  there  is  a military  party  in  Chile?  ” 

“ Ah,  my  friend,  there  is.  Who  can  deny  it  ? ” 

The  military  party  was  not  a partisan  organization, 
for  it  was  only  reflected  in  the  different  political  groups 
which  were  at  variance  among  themselves  as  to  the 
details  of  their  programme,  though  not  as  to  the  main 
purpose.  This  was  territorial  accretion,  and  the  in- 
definite application  of  the  nitrate  resources  for  military 
ends  as  the  means  for  continuing  the  supremacy  of  the 
army  and  navy  elements.  The  reliance  was  the  aggres- 
sive and  sacrificing  patriotism  which  is  part  of  the  being 
of  every  Chilean,  whether  high  or  low ; hence  the  dif- 
ficulty of  combating  it.  But  it  took  no  thought  of  the 
roto  ; therefore  its  weakness. 

A series  of  swift  events  — some  domestic,  some 
international  — checked  the  militant  military  tendency. 
Through  the  peace  pacts  with  the  Argentine  Republic, 
Chile  found  the  opportunity  of  freeing  herself  from 
naval  expenditures  that  were  weighing  her  down.  In 
the  construction  and  control  of  the  Panama  Canal 
by  the  United  States,  her  conservative  statesmen  were 
enabled  to  establish  the  definite  lines  of  both  com- 
mercial and  political  relations  with  the  other  countries 
of  South  America.  By  reason  of  the  acuteness  of  the 
financial  and  industrial  crisis  which  prevailed  in  1903, 
the  depth  of  the  popular  discontent  was  revealed,  and 
the  imperative  need  of  finding  a remedy  was  disclosed. 
The  roto  had  to  be  conciliated,  propitiated,  humored, 
perhaps  bamboozled  a little,  but  always  with  a view 
to  bettering  his  material  condition.  A comprehensive 
system  of  public  works,  railways,  harbors,  rivers,  roads. 


SOCIAL  QUESTIONS 


261 


and  also  municipal  improvements,  was  recognized  to 
be  the  channel  into  which  the  national  income  should 
flow. 

It  is  the  slow  process  of  years  during  which  the 
palpitating  problems  sometimes  may  throb  with  preg- 
nant intensity,  but  their  solution  progresses  in  the 
degree  that  Chile  adheres  to  industrial  and  commercial 
policies,  and  recognizes  the  true  function  of  the  masses 
in  the  political  and  social  fabric  of  the  State. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


CHILE’S  INDUSTRIAL  FUTURE 


Agricultural  Possibilities  of  the  Central  Valley  — Its  Extent  — 
Wheat  for  Export  — Timber  Lands  of  the  South  — W ool  in 
the  Magellan  Territory  — Grape  Culture  — Mills  and  Fac- 
tories — Public  Works  Policy  — Longitudinal  and  Other  Rail- 
way Lines  — Drawbacks  in  Government  Ownership  — 
Trans-Andine  Road  — Higher  Levels  of  Foreign  Commerce  — 
Development  of  Shipping  — Population  — Experiments  in 
Coloni%ation  — Internal  and  External  Debt  — Gold  Redemp- 
tion Fund — Final  Word  about  the  Nitrates. 


RADE  and  industry  in  the  future  will  have  a 


broader  scope  in  Chilean  national  policies.  The 
passing  of  the  era  of  unlimited  naval  expansion  assures 
this  result.  After  the  peace  pacts  with  Argentina  were 
made  effective,  and  the  building  of  new  battleships 
was  stopped,  it  was  estimated  that  1 1,000,000  went 
into  industries  of  the  soil.  By  the  sale  of  other  super- 
fluous naval  armament  to  European  Powers,  more 
funds  can  be  released  for  public  works  and  agricultural 
development. 

The  basis  of  the  agriculture  of  Chile  is  the  great 
central  valley.  This  lies  between  the  Cordillera  of 
the  Andes  and  the  Coast  Range.  It  begins  at  the 
hill  of  Chacabuco  in  latitude  33°,  and  extends  to  the 
estuary  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Ancud  known  as 
the  Bay  of  Reloncavi,  latitude  41°  30'.  Santiago  is  in 
the  plain  at  the  upper  end  of  the  valley.  At  the  lower 
end  is  the  bed  of  lakes  and  gulf  channels.  The  central 


CHILE’S  INDUSTRIAL  FUTURE  263 


valley  is  580  miles  long,  and  has  an  average  of  31 
miles  in  width,  though  in  the  northern  section  it  is  not 
more  than  15  miles  across,  and  at  the  Angostura  de 
Paine  in  latitude  34°  a stone  may  be  tossed  from  one 
side  to  the  other.  The  area  is  approximately  18,000 
square  miles. 

In  this  valley  are  the  chief  centres  of  permanent 
and  growing  population,  as  distinguished  from  the 
floating  population  of  the  nitrate  provinces.  The 
region  favors  all  kinds  of  farming,  both  temperate  and 
semi-tropical,  for  the  grape,  the  orange,  and  the  apple 
are  found  together.  It  grows  the  products  which 
supply  the  inhabitants  of  the  whole  country,  and  it 
also  has  a surplus  for  export.  Wheat  and  barley  are 
regularly  shipped  to  England  in  steadily  increasing 
quantities,  the  50,000  worth  of  wheat  which  Great 
Britain  received  from  Chile  in  1904  having  come  from 
this  district.  Corn,  or  maize,  and  linseed  also  are  ex- 
ported, and  some  wool  is  sent  abroad.  The  live-stock 
industry  is  a successful  one,  but  its  products  are  chiefly 
utilized  for  home  consumption. 

The  central  valley  is  capable  of  a very  large  exten- 
sion of  the  area  under  cultivation.  The  total  of  land 
given  over  to  the  production  of  the  cereals,  alfalfa, 
and  vegetables,  is  about  9,000,000  acres.  One  draw- 
back to  increase  is  the  tendency  of  the  land-proprietors 
to  keep  their  holdings  intact  and  to  prevent  a material 
addition  to  the  number  of  small  farmers.  There  are 
no  vast  single  estates,  as  in  the  wheat-growing  regions 
of  the  United  States.  But  there  are  many  large  haci- 
endas, whose  owners  are  content  to  receive  a relatively 
small  return  from  them  rather  than  sell  a part  in  order 
to  secure  capital  for  developing  the  remainder.  This 


2G4 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


question  enters  into  the  relation  of  the  roto  or  peon 
to  the  State,  though  not  in  an  acute  degree. 

When  the  government  and  the  individual  Chilean 
land-owners  succeed  in  bringing  a larger  area  under 
cultivation,  it  will  be  by  means  of  the  small  farmers. 
They  will  add  enormously  to  the  productive  resources. 
While  the  central  valley  may  not  be  said  to  have 
anything  like  the  present  wealth  of  the  deserts  of 
Atacama  and  Tarapaca,  with  their  saltpetre  deposits, 
yet  its  founts  of  production  are  enduring,  and  they 
will  broaden  and  spread  while  the  nitrate  beds  are 
being  exhausted.  This  is  both  an  economic  and  a 
political  fact  of  vast  importance  to  Chile. 

The  forest  lands  in  the  southern  provinces  are 
being  gradually  developed.  Here  is  another  source 
of  national  riches,  for  timber  on  the  Pacific  coast  is 
not  plentiful,  and  southern  Chile  has  forests  which 
are  capable  not  only  of  supplying  her  own  demands, 
but  also  of  supplementing  the  needs  of  neighboring 
countries.  In  the  Provinces  of  Arauco,  Valdivia,  and 
Llanquihue,  the  exploitation  of  the  native  timber  has 
caused  a lessening  of  the  quantity  imported  from 
Oregon  and  California. 

Below  the  central  valley  is  the  territory  of  Magel- 
lan, stretching  to  the  Straits  and  across  to  the  Chilean 
section  of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  It  comprises  47,500,000 
acres,  a large  portion  of  which  is  unusually  well 
adapted  to  sheep-raising.  At  the  close  of  1904  there 
were  4,250,000  head  of  sheep  in  this  region.  The 
animals  furnish  a strong,  silky  white  wool,  and  there 
is  some  commerce  in  sheepskins.  The  wool  exports 
range  from  120,000,000  to  140,000,000  pounds  annu- 
ally. Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  take  the 


CHILE’S  INDUSTRIAL  FUTURE  265 


bulk  of  the  merinos,  while  France  shares  with  them 
the  common  and  mixed  wools.  The  value  of  the 
annual  commerce  in  wool,  hides,  and  skins  is  about 
$2,000,000.  In  a recent  year  the  estimate  was  that 
^24,000,000  was  invested  in  new  enterprises,  chiefly 
mining  companies  and  cattle-ranches  in  the  Magellan 
district. 

Grape  culture  is  both  a profitable  and  a promising 
agricultural  industry.  The  capital  invested  in  it  is 
estimated  at  $17,000,000  to  $20,000,000  gold.  The 
area  under  cultivation  is  60,000  acres,  and  the  vine- 
yards have  a production  of  1,062,000  hectolitres.  In  a 
twelvemonth  the  value  of  the  product  was  $3,250,000. 
The  government  encourages  the  industry  by  an  export 
bounty  on  wines  and  grape  alcohols. 

EflForts  have  been  made  to  introduce  the  cultivation 
of  beet  root  into  Chile,  and  government  favor  has  been 
shown  these  projects.  Yet  it  is  very  doubtful  whether 
the  outcome  is  worth  the  forced  aid  necessary  to  nur- 
ture the  beet-root  industry.  It  is  more  profitable  for 
Chile  to  follow  along  the  lines  of  the  agricultural  prod- 
ucts which  do  not  require  a highly  artificial  stimulus.^ 

^ A different  view  is  taken  by  Chilean  authorities.  An  article  in  the 
Boletin  de  la  Sociedad  de  Fomento  Fabr  'tl  (Bulletin  of  the  Manufacturers’ 
Association)  stated  : 

“ The  soil  and  climate  of  Chile  indicate  that  the  sugar  industry  would 
prosper  in  the  Republic,  if  properly  exploited,  not  only  to  the  extent  of 
supplying  the  domestic  needs  of  the  nation  with  that  important  product 
of  prime  necessity,  but  also  in  such  quantities  as  would  leave  a consid- 
erable surplus  for  export  to  foreign  markets.  The  sugar  beet  is  one  of 
the  tubers  that  flourish  most  luxuriantly  in  the  lands  of  the  central  zones 
of  the  Republic.  In  addition  to  the  natural  adaptability  of  the  soil  and 
climate  of  Chile  for  the  growth  of  this  tuberous  root,  the  country  also  pos- 
sesses deposits  of  nitrate  and  guano  which  are  recognized  to  be  the  best 
and  most  appropriate  fertilizers  in  the  cultivation  of  this  highly  saccharine- 
producing  tubercule." 


266 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


Agricultural  exports,  In  the  decade  from  1893  to 
1902,  ranged  from  $2,000,000  to  14,500,000  annu- 
ally. The  latter  sum  seems  likely  to  prove  the  min- 
imum basis  for  the  future. 

The  industrial  resources  of  Chile  are  mirrored, 
though  not  with  completeness,  in  the  Permanent  In- 
dustrial Exhibition  which  was  opened  in  1904.  This 
covers  not  only  the  products  of  the  soil,  but  also  the 
home  manufactures  that  are  fabricated  either  from  im- 
ported raw  material  or  from  half-manufactured  prod- 
ucts brought  in  to  encourage  the  home  industries. 
The  Chilean  policy  is  protective  both  by  bounties  and 
by  duties.  The  sugar  refineries,  which  import  the  raw 
cane  sugar  from  Peru,  are  among  the  most  stable  of 
the  industries.  The  flour-mills  are  also  profitable 
enterprises.  They  grind  the  native  wheat,  and  have 
a market  for  the  flour  for  export  in  Bolivia  and  Peru, 
as  well  as  farther  up  the  coast. 

The  country  has  about  8,000  industrial  establish- 
ments. Among  these  are  400  engaged  in  tanning 
and  curing  hides,  430  in  various  kinds  of  wood- 
working, 308  in  metallurgy,  268  in  chemical  products, 
560  in  ceramics  or  pottery,  1,900  in  food  products, 
1,920  in  cloth  manufacture  and  tailoring,  700  in 
building,  and  so  on.  Car-shops  are  maintained  in 
connection  with  the  State  railways.  A disposition  on 
the  part  of  foreign  capital  to  engage  in  textile  manu- 
factures has  received  encouragement,  and  woollen  and 

The  duty  on  the  raw  sugar  is  6.50  pesos,  or  Chilean  dollars,  per  100 
kilograms,  equal  to  nearly  one  cent  per  pound  in  gold.  The  duty  on 
refined  sugar  is  about  two  cents  per  pound.  The  output  of  the  refinery 
at  Vina  del  Mar  is  53,000,000  to  54,000,000  pounds,  much  of  which  is 
exported.  This  refinery,  with  a capital  of  $1,500,000  gold,  through  a 
period  of  ten  years,  paid  annual  dividends  of  lo^  per  cent. 


CHILE’S  INDUSTRIAL  FUTURE  267 


cotton  mills  may  result.  The  native  labor,  judged  by 
the  experiments,  is  competent. 

The  public  works  policy  has  become  the  programme 
of  all  political  groups,  though  the  Congress  sometimes 
is  laggard  in  voting  the  appropriations  recommended 
by  the  Executive.  Railways  are  its  most  important 
feature.  No  chapter  in  Chile’s  history  is  more  credit- 
able to  her  people  than  the  sacrifices  made  for  build- 
ing railways,  and  nothing  shows  the  national  instinct 
better  than  the  perception  that  was  demonstrated  of 
the  part  which  railroads  play  in  both  the  industrial 
and  the  political  development  of  a nation.  In  1905, 
3,100  miles  were  in  operation,  with  many  new  lines 
under  way.  The  majority  of  the  lines  are  owned  by 
the  government,  with  the  exception  of  the  nitrate  roads 
and  the  Chilean  section  of  the  Antofagasta  and  Bolivian 
Railway. 

This  State  ownership  is  at  once  an  advantage  and  a 
drawback.  The  policy  of  government  proprietorship 
has  made  possible  the  building  of  links  that  have 
been  of  great  value  in  internal  development,  and  that 
will  be  of  greater  value  when  they  become  joined 
together  as  parts  of  one  system.  The  disadvantage  is 
in  operation.  When  a Buenos  Ayres  railroad  presi- 
dent was  considering  the  extension  of  the  Southern 
Railway  of  Argentina  through  the  lower  Andes  to  a 
junction  with  the  Chilean  roads,  — all  of  which  will 
come  some  day, — he  made  inquiries  about  the  earn- 
ings of  the  Chilean  system  under  government  control. 
He  was  told  that  they  had  amounted  to  ^18,000,000. 
That  was  very  good  indeed,  considering  the  mileage 
and  rolling-stock.  “ And  how  much  did  it  cost  to 
operate  them  last  year  ? ” he  inquired.  “ |20,ooo,ooo,” 


268  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


was  the  reply.  This  meant  that  under  State  manage- 
ment roads  which  would  have  paid  dividends  showed 
a healthy  deficit.  The  deficit  is  not  invariable,  for  in 
1903  the  government  railways  showed  a surplus  of 
1 1,360,000  Chilean  currency. 

This  government  administration  illustrates  the  evils 
of  the  use  of  patronage.  The  management  is  expen- 
sive ; there  is  favoritism,  discrimination,  losses,  unnec- 
essary employees  by  the  hundred.  When  the  national 
policy  is  matured,  and  the  country  has  the  railways 
which  are  necessary  and  which  would  not  have  been 
constructed  except  by  the  government,  the  political 
evils  can  be  overcome  easily.  The  lines  can  be  leased 
to  private  companies  under  a rental  which  will  in- 
sure profit  to  the  lessees  and  a steady  revenue  to  the 
government.  The  State  railways  have  an  annual  traffic 
of  3,000,000  to  3,500,000  tons  of  freight,  and  carry 
from  7,000,000  to  7,500,000  passengers. 

The  Chilean  aspiration  has  been  shown  very  clearly 
in  the  dogged  determination  with  which  the  longi- 
tudinal line  paralleling  the  coast  and  the  Cordilleras 
has  been  carried  forward.  This  policy  already  has 
given  a section  of  the  central  valley  the  benefits  of 
railway  transportation,  and  in  a few  years  undoubtedly 
the  gaps  will  be  closed  so  that  the  through  journey 
can  be  taken  from  Santiago  to  Puerto  Montt  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Chiloe  Archipelago.  Also  it  will  bring 
Iquique  and  the  nitrate  provinces  of  the  North  into 
through  railway  communication  with  the  capital  and 
the  South.  These  northern  links  will  be  of  marked 
value  in  reviving  copper  and  silver  mining. 

The  trans-Andine  road,  completing  the  gap  from  Los 
Andes  through  the  Uspallata  Pass  to  the  Argentine 


CHILE’S  INDUSTRIAL  FUTURE  269 


boundary,  when  completed,  will  open  a new  chapter 
of  intercontinental  transportation.  Promise  is  held 
out  that  the  line  may  be  in  operation  by  the  end  of 
1907,  but  the  great  spiral  tunnel,  which  is  the  engi- 
neering device  for  breaking  the  back  of  the  Cordilleras, 
may  require  a longer  time.  The  important  fact  is 
that  after  delays  of  forty  years  the  Chilean  govern- 
ment guaranteed  capital  to  the  amount  of  ^7,500,000 
an  annual  return  of  5 per  cent  for  twenty  years,  and 
let  the  contract.  A colossal  bronze  statue,  resting  on 
a granite  column,  the  Christ  of  the  Andes,  at  the  very 
pinnacle  of  the  Cordilleras,  is  a striking  monument 
along  this  railway  line.  It  is  just  on  the  boundary 
between  Chile  and  Argentina,  and  commemorates  the 
peace  treaty  without  which  the  railroad  systems  of  the 
two  Republics  would  not  have  been  joined.  The  idea 
of  the  commemorative  statue  was  due  to  Senora 
Angela  de  Costa,  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The  influence 
of  this  trans-Andine  railway  on  the  mutual  commerce 
of  Chile  and  Argentina  by  establishing  through  com- 
munication between  Valparaiso  and  Buenos  Ayres  will 
be  considerable,  but  it  promises  to  be  even  more 
beneficial  in  bringing  the  western  pampas  of  Argen- 
tina to  the  Pacific  and  to  Panama. 

Chilean  foreign  commerce  reaches  to  higher  levels 
with  each  year.  Naturally  the  nitrates  form  the  bulk 
of  the  exports,  and  assure  a balance  of  trade  in  favor 
of  Chile.  On  this  account,  by  England  and  Germany 
an  advantage  is  maintained ; but  since  the  United 
States  is  not  a large  consumer  of  the  saltpetre,  the 
balance  of  trade  is  in  its  favor.  For  the  ten  years 
from  1895  to  1904  inclusive,  the  United  States  products 
imported  into  Chile  aggregated  141,610,000,  while  her 


270 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


exports  to  the  United  States  amounted  to  $26,100,000} 
Farm  implements,  builders’  hardware,  machinery,  and 
mineral  oils  composed  the  larger  part  of  the  shipments. 

This  commerce  is  likely  to  grow  to  much  larger 
proportions  in  the  degree  that  railway  building,  mu- 
nicipal improvements,  and  harbor  works  are  carried 
forward  by  Chile.  A government  agent  who  visited 
Europe  and  North  America  in  1905  in  connection 
with  contracts  which  were  to  be  let,  suggested  to  Pitts- 
burg manufacturers  the  formation  of  a company  that 
should  give  special  attention  to  iron  and  steel  products, 
railway  and  road  supplies,  for  the  Chilean  market. 
The  commerce  is  certain  to  grow  after  the  Canal  is 
constructed,  because  the  agricultural  machinery,  min- 
eral oils,  and  other  products  of  which  Chile  is  a heavy 
importer,  will  best  be  furnished  by  the  United  States, 
more  especially  in  view  of  the  cheapened  transporta- 
tion. An  American  bank  in  Valparaiso,  in  order  to 
make  the  United  States  trade  independent  of  Eng- 
lish banking  relations,  is  one  of  the  probabilities  of 
the  future. 

Chile’s  dependence  on  the  sea  makes  foreign  trade 
a vital  element  of  her  growth  and  prosperity.  She 
has  an  encouraging  future  in  the  development  of  her 
own  shipping.  With  the  hardy  marine  population  of 
the  Chiloe  Archipelago  and  the  other  seafaring  popu- 
lation of  the  coast  as  the  basis,  her  advantage  on  the 
Pacific  is  manifest.  She  will  have  in  the  future  a 
much  larger  share  in  the  coast-carrying  trade  which 
will  result  from  the  Panama  Canal.  Efforts  to  run 

^ The  figures  are  on  the  basis  of  Chilean  export  and  import  valuations. 
The  United  States  Treasury  statistics  place  a higher  value  on  the  im- 
ports from  Chile,  chiefly  nitrates. 


“Christ  of  the  Andes” 


CHILE’S  INDUSTRIAL  FUTURE  271 


Chilean  vessels  as  far  as  San  Francisco  failed  a few 
years  ago,  because  of  obstacles  which  competitors  were 
enabled  to  throw  in  the  way.  This  was  a temporary 
check.  The  shipping  along  the  coast  as  far  as  Van- 
couver will  not  always  be  denied  her,  but  after  the 
Canal  is  opened  there  will  be  a more  pronounced 
advantage  in  passing  through  it  to  the  Atlantic,  and 
the  flag  of  the  Chilean  merchant  marine  will  be  seen 
in  New  Orleans  and  New  York. 

The  existing  navigation  has  a substantial  base  for 
developing  the  maritime  commercial  movement.  In 
a recent  year  the  number  of  sailing-vessels  calling  at 
the  Chilean  ports  was  549,  and  the  total  registry  of 
these  vessels  was  797,000  tons.  Most  of  them  were 
British,  the  number  being  302,  and  the  tonnage 

447.000.  After  that  came  Germany,  with  92  ships 
and  146,000  tonnage.  The  United  States  sailing- 
ships  numbered  17,  and  their  aggregate  tonnage  was 

15.000.  Chile  had  the  same  number,  but  with  a ton- 
nage of  13,000. 

The  steamships  numbered  1,255,  ^ registry 

tonnage  of  2,741,000.  Of  these  Great  Britain  con- 
tributed 685,  whose  total  tonnage  was  1,477,000; 
Germany,  381,  with  a tonnage  of  946,000;  the  United 
States,  15,  v/ith  39,000;  and  Chile  149,  with  a tonnage 
of  224,000.  The  Chilean  government  pays  a small 
subsidy  to  the  companies  which  carry  the  mails  along 
the  coast  and  to  and  from  Panama.  The  Chilean 
merchant  marine  consists  of  136  vessels,  with  a total 
registry  of  67,936  tons.  Next  to  Chile  herself,  the 
greatest  volume  of  the  coast  trading  is  done  by  ships 
under  the  English  flag. 

The  population  of  Chile  is  between  3,000,000  and 


272 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


3.100.000.  In  1796  an  enumeration  showed  350,000 
inhabitants.  In  18 10,  almost  at  the  threshold  of  the 
struggle  for  independence  from  Spain,  the  number  was 

500.000.  In  1866  it  was  estimated  at  2,000,000. 
The  census  of  1895,  which  was  taken  with  care, 
gave  2,712,000  inhabitants,  nearly  equally  divided  be- 
tween town  and  country.  The  urban  population  was 

1.250.000.  and  the  rural  1,472,000. 

Measures  for  adding  to  the  number  of  inhabitants 
by  means  of  colonization  and  other  forms  of  stimulated 
immigration  have  not  given  very  encouraging  results. 
The  public  men  and  political  economists  who  ana- 
lyze the  causes  which  prevent  the  natural  increase  of 
population  from  being  normal,  also  find  that  the  arti- 
ficial propagation  is  unsatisfactory.  During  the  ten 
years  ending  in  1902  the  government  spent  1 100,000, 
Chilean  money,  a year  in  its  colonization  efforts,  and 
maintained  an  agency  in  Paris.  The  result  of  that 
work  and  the  expenditure  of  half  a million  dollars  was 
the  arrival  of  7,000  persons,  some  of  whom  went  back 
and  many  of  whom  drifted  to  other  countries.  During 
the  same  period  the  Manufacturers’  Association,  the 
Fomento  de  Fabrica^  secured  2,000  individuals.  That 
is  to  say,  in  ten  years  government  agency  and  private 
enterprise  did  not  succeed  in  bringing  10,000  perma- 
nent immigrants  to  Chile. 

Yet  colonies  have  not  always  been  failures.  The 
German  revolutionists  of  1848  who  settled  around 
Valdivia,  Osorno,  and  Lake  Llanquihue,  took  root 
and  flourished.  With  their  tanneries  and  breweries 
they  have  made  Valdivia  the  industrial  centre  that  it 
is.  After  the  war  with  Peru  the  Colonial  Department 
sought  to  establish  frontier  colonists  on  the  lands  south 


CHILE’S  INDUSTRIAL  FUTURE  273 


of  the  river  Bio-bio  and  also  in  the  archipelago  of 
Chiloe,  where  cereals  grow  in  spite  of  the  ceaseless  rain. 
It  is  doubtful  if  large  groups  of  foreigners  ever  can  be 
settled  permanently  among  those  islands,  but  on  the 
mainland  there  is  no  reason  why  colonization  should 
not  succeed.  The  forest  clearings  in  the  South  and 
the  opportunities  for  sheep-raising  and  wool-growing 
should  induce  an  appreciable  immigration  in  those 
localities. 

The  Chilean  government  is  seeking  more  especially 
immigrants  from  northern  Europe,  Scandinavians,  who 
would  find  the  climate  cold  enough  for  them  but 
much  less  severe  than  that  of  their  own  country. 
The  climate  of  Chile  has  its  eulogists,  and  the  eulo- 
gies are  not  undeserved.  There  are,  as  the  books 
say,  the  three  climates,  — the  dry  heat  of  the  North, 
the  tropical  warmth  of  the  Central  region,  and  the 
temperate  climate  of  the  South.  Actually  two-thirds 
of  Chile  might  be  called  temperate,  and  the  South, 
even  in  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  is  not  frigid,  for  the 
warm  winds  of  the  ocean,  not  having  a whole  conti- 
nent but  only  the  tapering  end  to  sweep  over,  modify 
what  otherwise  might  be  Antarctic  cold. 

Whether  the  Boer  colonies  which  were  established 
after  the  war  in  the  Transvaal  will  spread  is  uncertain. 
The  first  colonists  were  pleased  with  their  surround- 
ings. But  there  is  no  veldt  in  southern  Chile,  no 
limitless  stretch  of  level  country,  and  the  probability 
is  that  the  Patagonian  plains  and  the  pampas  of  Ar- 
gentina will  absorb  most  of  the  Boers  who  elect  or 
who  have  elected  to  leave  South  Africa  for  good. 

Hitherto  colonization  has  been  conducted  by  Chile 
as  a government  project,  but  it  is  an  open  question 

i8 


274 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


whether  better  results  would  not  be  obtained  by  mak- 
ing the  state  ancillary  to  private  enterprise.  It  also 
may  be  assumed  that  universal  education  in  hygiene 
and  observance  of  sanitary  principles,  along  with  the 
improvement  in  the  physical  condition  of  the  working- 
classes,  by  lessening  the  mortality,  in  a single  genera- 
tion would  result  in  a large  addition  to  the  permanent 
population  through  the  simple  processes  of  natural 
increase. 

The  foreign  debt  of  Chile  in  1905  was  ^16,650,000, 
or  $222,000,000  in  Chilean  currency.  This  debt  was 
created  under  refunding  and  other  laws  passed  subse- 
quent to  1885.  Of  the  total,  83  per  cent  is  held  by 
the  Rothschilds  and  8 per  cent  by  the  Deutsche  Bank 
of  Berlin,  the  balance  being  distributed  among  various 
creditors.  Chile  has  paid  very  liberal  commissions  in 
securing  loans,  whether  they  were  temporary  or  for 
refunding  purposes.  She  always  has  preserved  her 
credit,  but  this  credit  often  has  been  a too  ready 
excuse  for  further  borrowing. 

In  the  period  of  unlimited  naval  expansion  and  war 
preparations,  in  spite  of  the  regular  income  from  the 
nitrates,  Chile  kept  piling  up  her  obligations,  and, 
abandoning  the  gold  standard,  began  issuing  paper 
notes.  The  latest  issue  of  $^0,000,000  made  under 
the  law  of  December  29,  1904,  brought  the  outstand- 
ing paper  up  to  eighty  million  pesos,  the  value  of  the 
peso  being  36.5  cents  United  States  currency.  With 
the  view  to  getting  back  to  the  gold  standard,  a con- 
version fund  had  been  established,  and  when  this 
paper  issue  was  authorized  the  gold  redemption  re- 
serve was  close  to  $13,500,000.  The  hope  had  been 
to  reestablish  the  gold  basis  in  1907,  but  this  law 


CHILE’S  INDUSTRIAL  FUTURE  275 


specifically  fixed  the  date  for  the  conversion  of  the  paper 
currency  at  January  i,  1910.  The  gold  reserve  is  to  be 
strengthened  from  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  nitrate 
grounds,  the  sale  of  public  lands  in  the  Straits  of 
Magellan  territory,  and  a reserve  of  ^500,000  in  gold 
monthly,  which  the  government  undertakes  to  hy- 
pothecate for  the  conversion  scheme,  all  of  which  is 
to  be  deposited  in  first-class  European  banks  and  in 
those  of  the  United  States.  To  these  deposits  will  be 
added  the  interest  as  it  accrues. 

The  Chilean  Minister  of  Finance,  at  the  time  of  the 
passage  of  this  law,  estimated  that  on  January  i,  1910, 
the  supply  of  gold  would  amount  to  ^86,000,000, 
which  would  leave  the  government  a surplus  of 
$6,000,000  after  the  retirement  of  the  paper  notes  ; but 
there  is  no  assurance  that  further  issues  of  currency 
may  not  be  made  in  the  interval  ; and  this  keeps 
foreign  capitalists  and  investors  nervous,  although, 
since  the  nitrate  taxes  are  payable  in  gold,  as  are  also 
the  customs  receipts,  the  position  of  the  country  is  not 
a perilous  one  financially. 

The  basis  of  further  debt  on  the  part  of  Chile  may 
be  found  in  providing  funds  for  the  Valparaiso  harbor 
improvements  and  also  for  the  railroad  from  Arica 
into  Bolivia.  The  latter  project  and  the  guaranty  of 
the  payment  of  interest  on  other  railroads  to  be  built 
by  the  Bolivian  government,  may  be  considered  justi- 
fiable, because  these  railroads  are  expected  to  make 
Chile  commercially  dominant  in  Bolivia  and  to  in- 
crease her  trade  very  largely. 

Notwithstanding  the  conditions  which  were  held 
to  justify  the  country  in  increasing  the  amount  of 
paper  currency,  the  system,  while  very  profitable  to 


276 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


the  banks  and  the  money-changers,  is  unequivocally 
bad  for  the  merchants.  They  have  to  buy  abroad  in 
gold  and  also  to  pay  the  customs  duties  in  the  same 
manner,  while  they  must  sell  on  a fluctuating  paper 
basis.  With  decreasing  naval  and  military  expendi- 
tures, with  improving  industrial  conditions,  and  with 
widening  commerce,  Chile  should  return  to  the  gold 
basis  and  maintain  it. 

After  this  outline  sketch  of  the  resources,  industries, 
commerce,  and  finances  of  Chile,  I am  brought  back 
to  the  question  of  the  nitrates.  They  form  more  than 
75  per  cent  of  the  exports,  and  they  contribute  more 
than  8 5 per  cent  of  the  government  revenues.  Because 
their  exhaustion  is  foreseen  and  the  time  calculated, 
does  it  follow  that  the  Republic  rests  on  quicksand, 
that  the  foundation  will  disappear  and  leave  no  solid 
national  superstructure  behind  ? One  answer  might 
be  found  in  an  historical  review  of  the  growth  and 
consolidation  of  the  national  life  during  the  seventy- 
five  years  before  the  nitrate  provinces  were  acquired. 

Another  answer  may  be  found  in  the  newer  in- 
dustrial and  commercial  life  on  which  the  country 
is  entering.  The  fertilizers  have  yet  in  them  the 
means  of  internal  development  — roads  and  railways, 
harbors,  municipal  improvements  — sufficient  for  a 
century’s  growth.  The  central  valley,  the  forests  of 
the  South,  the  sheep  pastures  of  the  Magellan  terri- 
tory and  Tierra  del  Fuego,  the  coal  of  Arauco  and 
Concepcion,  the  copper  and  silver  of  the  northern 
provinces,  all  have  potencies  of  production  while  the 
nitrate  exhaustion  goes  on,  and  their  development  may 
be  contemplated  with  equanimity  while  awaiting  the 
advance  of  scientific  irrigation  to  make  green  at  some 


CHILE’S  INDUSTRIAL  FUTURE  277 


future  period  the  white  refuse  of  the  saltpetre  beds. 
Closer  commercial  relations  with  the  neighboring 
countries  of  South  America  and  wider  trade  with  all 
the  world,  the  expansion  of  the  native  merchant 
marine  until  it  becomes  an  international  factor  in 
the  ocean  transport  trade,  offer  the  natural  outlet  for 
the  national  energies  while  assuring  the  national  in- 
tegrity. With  these  economic  forces  recognized  and 
given  their  proper  sphere,  the  collisions  and  the  cross- 
purposes of  domestic  politics  need  have  no  deterrent 
influence  on  the  industrial  future  of  Chile.  Agri- 
culture, mining,  and  trade  are  better  for  her  than 
battleships. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

WAYFARING  IN  BOLIVIA  — THE  ROYAL  ANDES 

Old  Spanish  Trail  from  Argentina  — Customs  Outpost  at  Majo 
— Sublime  Mountain  View  — Primitive  Native  Life  — Sun- 
beaten  Limestone  Hills  — Vale  of  Santa  Rosa  — Tupiza's 
People  and  Their  Pursuits — Ladies'  Fashions  among  the  Indian 
IV omen  — Across  the  Chichas  Cordilleras  — Barren  Vegetation 
— Experience  with  Siroche,  or  Mountain  Sickness  — Personal 
Discomforts  — Hard  Riding — Portugalete  Pass  — Alpacas  and 
Llamas  — Sierra  of  San  Vicente  — Uyuni  a Dark  Ribbon  on 
a White  Plain  — Mine  Enthusiasts  — Foreign  Consulates- 

I JOURNEYED  into  Bolivia,  the  heart  of  South 
America,  from  northern  Argentina  with  pack  ani- 
mals over  the  old  Inca  and  Spanish  trail.  The  Pacific 
coast  routes  for  reaching  the  imprisoned  country  are 
by  the  railroad  from  Mollendo  to  Lake  Titicaca,  and 
then  across  the  lake  and  by  the  little  railway  from 
Guaqui  to  La  Paz ; by  the  railroad  from  Arica  to 
Tacna,  and  from  Tacna  by  mules  to  Corocoro,  whence 
a stage  may  be  had  to  La  Paz,  6o  miles  farther  on ; 
and  by  the  railroad  from  Antofagasta  to  Oruro,  575 
miles,  and  then  by  stage  to  La  Paz,  160  miles. 

The  ancient  and  historic  route  from  the  Atlantic 
is  the  one  that  is  followed  in  the  prolongation  of 
the  Argentina  Railway  lines,  and  in  joining  the  new 
Bolivian  links  so  as  to  form  a complete  section  in 
the  Intercontinental  or  Pan-American  system  from 
Buenos  Ayres  to  Lake  Titicaca.  From  Jujuy, 
1,000  miles  distant  from  Buenos  Ayres,  up  through 


THE  ROYAL  ANDES 


279 


northern  Argentina,  the  course  is  in  a double  funnel 
along  the  great  canon,  or  quebrada,  of  Humahuaca. 
The  trail  widens  in  the  valley  of  Tupiza,  and  then 
contracts  from  Tupiza  west  and  north  into  difficult 
mountain  passes  through  the  Chichas  Cordilleras  and 
the  sierras  of  San  Vicente,  until  the  Altiplanicie,  or 
great  Bolivian  table-land  that  lies  between  the  granitic 
Oriental,  or  Royal,  Cordilleras  and  the  volcanic  Occi- 
dental, or  Western,  Cordilleras,  is  reached. 

The  boundary  between  Argentina  and  Bolivia  is 
the  Quiaca  River.  The  town  of  La  Quiaca  on  the 
Argentine  side  is  the  frontier  custom  house.  On 
the  Bolivian  border  is  a big  ranch  with  a row  of 
willow  trees.  There  is  a fair  road  through  an  alter- 
nation of  gravelly  mountain-sides  and  rounded  tops. 
The  first  Bolivian  settlement  is  Majo  in  the  valley, 
an  adobe  village  of  a few  hundred  inhabitants.  This 
place  is  the  customs  outpost.  Majo  has  a govern- 
ment post,  or  inn,  which  is  called  a tambo.  The  tambo 
consists  of  a corral  for  the  animals  and  an  adobe  hut 
for  the  accommodation  of  strangers.  Lodging  is  free. 
The  traveller  spreads  his  blankets  on  the  earth  floor 
or  on  the  mud  benches  along  the  wall.  The  inn- 
keeper, who  is  a government  official,  provides  him 
with  food.  I got  chicken,  rice,  and  bread,  which  was 
luxurious  feasting  after  ten  days’  hardships.  Fodder 
was  supplied  the  animals  at  a fair  charge,  and  a smithy, 
which  was  part  of  the  inn,  was  free  for  the  use  of  the 
arriero,  or  muleteer. 

It  was  September  when  I was  at  Majo.  At  five 
o’clock  in  the  afternoon  the  thermometer  marked  76° 
Fahrenheit,  and  at  seven  o’clock,  when  the  sun  had 
gone  down,  it  marked  46.5°,  a noticeable  change.  At 


280  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


mid-day  at  this  season  the  temperature  was  about  86°. 
In  the  early  morning  before  sunrise  I had  broken  a 
film  of  ice  on  one  of  the  rivulets  in  a sequestered 
gulch. 

But  Bolivia  is  not  seen  from  the  little  valley  in 
which  the  hamlet  of  Majo  lies.  After  two  hours 
of  going  down  and  up  steep  hills  the  eminence  on  the 
edge  of  an  extensive  gorge  is  reached.  It  is  the  first 
view  of  the  Royal  Andes  and  their  sierras.  A sublime 
sight  it  is.  The  change  from  the  arid,  half-desert 
scenery  is  startling.  The  mountains  in  the  foreground 
lie  in  irregular,  transverse  black  and  gray  masses,  and 
through  the  mists  the  fleecy  peaks  and  pinnacled  preci- 
pices are  visible.  The  dominating  one  is  Guadalupe, 
18,870  feet  above  sea-level,  the  Pike’s  Peak  of  Bolivia. 
Closer  at  hand  the  sierras  are  covered  with  some 
appearance  of  vegetation,  — pale  green  cacti  and  russet 
brown  thorn-bushes  or  acacias.  I followed  the  ravine 
down  along  the  banks  of  the  dried-up  river,  which 
was  bordered  with  pepper  trees  and  willows.  In  this 
valley  are  a number  of  attractive  small  farms.  After 
leaving  it  there  is  another  hill  climb.  Yuruma,  the 
hill  village,  is  a dilapidated  collection  of  adobe  cabins. 

Genuine  Bolivian  life,  the  primitive  and  patriarchal 
existence,  I encountered  in  the  villages  of  Nazarene 
and  Suipacha.  They  lie  on  either  side  of  the  Grand, 
or  San  Juan,  River,  which  is  easily  forded  in  the  dry 
season.  It  was  a rural  scene  that  would  have  delighted 
the  poet  or  the  philosopher  who  wants  to  go  back  to 
Nature.  Nothing  more  tranquil  in  all  the  world  than 
this  secluded  nook  in  the  Andes.  The  women  were 
washing  clothes  in  the  streams,  the  men  and  boys 
were  working  in  the  fields,  the  flocks  of  sheep  and 


THE  ROYAL  ANDES 


281 


cattle  grazed  placidly  in  the  valley  and  on  the  hill- 
side, and  everybody  had  a respectful  greeting  to 
the  stranger,  sometimes  in  Spanish,  sometimes  in 
the  Quichua  tongue.  The  donkeys  wandered  about 
bearing  clay  water-jars  and  apparently  without  a 
driver  until  a small  and  wrinkled  old  man  with  most 
wonderfully  patched  and  brilliantly  colored  trousers, 
screamed  to  them,  and  they  stopped  where  a customer 
waited.  The  cabins  were  of  adobe,  or  unbaked  brick. 
Some  were  quite  neat  and  were  half  hidden  in  gardens 
surrounded  by  mud  walls  covered  with  thorn-bushes. 

I never  met  so  many  very  old  people  as  in  these 
two  primitive  villages.  Far  from  the  carking  cares 
and  ambitions  of  the  world,  they  follow  their  unevent- 
ful course  until  the  sands  of  life  literally  run  out.  In 
front  of  one  cabin  was  an  old  woman  crooning  over 
her  bowl  of  porridge.  She  appeared  to  me  a vitalized 
mummy.  I reined  my  mule  before  a dwelling  a little 
farther  on  and  asked,  “ What  is  the  age  of  la  viejicita 
(the  little  old  woman)?”  “We  don’t  know,  sir,” 
replied  the  occupant,  civilly.  “ We  think  she  is  more 
than  one  hundred  and  fifteen  years  old.  Her  great- 
grandchildren say  she  is  one  hundred  and  twenty-five.” 
I might  doubt  the  family  records  of  the  crone  as  pre- 
served by  the  great-grandchildren,  yet  seeing  her  it 
was  easy  to  believe  that  her  life  may  have  spanned 
three  centuries,  — born  in  the  late  years  of  the  eight- 
eenth and  stretching  through  the  nineteenth  into  the 
twentieth,  — for  she  certainly  was  more  than  one  hun- 
dred. When  the  Bolivian  census  was  taken  a few 
years  ago,  the  enumerators  reported  1,261  persons 
whose  age  passed  the  century  mark,  and  many  of 
these  centenarians  dwelt  in  this  San  Juan  valley. 


282 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


The  gold-hunters  at  various  times  have  ruffled  the 
placid  life  of  the  inhabitants.  A ledge  of  quartz 
cropping  out  from  the  side  of  the  sierra  near  Suipacha 
has  been  attacked  viciously,  but  more  promise  has 
been  held  out  by  the  placer  yields.  Its  sands  are  not 
all  golden,  yet  they  have  yielded  enough  to  encourage 
the  investment  of  a large  amount  of  capital  in  com- 
panies formed  for  the  purpose  of  dredging  the  river- 
bed. These  enterprises  have  their  headquarters  in 
Buenos  Ayres.  During  my  journey  I found  the 
people  impatient  for  the  arrival  of  the  heavy  dredg- 
ing machinery  which  was  at  the  seaboard  awaiting 
transportation.  It  arrived  later. 

After  leaving  Suipacha  there  was  a very  hot  and 
dusty  hill  climb  of  three  hours,  although  most  of  it 
was  along  a fine  piece  of  mountain  highway,  really  a 
splendid  triumph  of  road  engineering.  The  hills  all 
around  here  seemed  to  be  limestone,  and  the  sun  beat- 
ing on  them  created  the  most  intense  heat  that  I 
experienced  anywhere.  In  the  morning  at  sunrise 
my  thermometer  registered  50°  Fahrenheit.  In  the 
early  afternoon  in  the  midst  of  these  limestone  cliffs 
it  marked  110°  Fahrenheit.  This  was  15  degrees 
higher  than  at  any  other  point  in  the  journey.  I 
might  have  questioned  the  correctness  of  the  ther- 
mometer, but  its  previous  and  its  subsequent  registra- 
tions I was  able  to  verify,  so  that  there  was  no  reason 
to  doubt  its  verity  in  registering  this  locality. 

But  though  the  glaring  sun  and  the  choking  dust 
made  the  afternoon  very  uncomfortable,  there  was  com- 
pensation. It  was  almost  dusk  when  we  — myself, 
the  muleteer,  and  the  pack  animals  — descended 
into  the  vale  of  Santa  Rosa  and  found  it  gloriously 


THE  ROYAL  ANDES 


283 


restful.  A model  ranch  spreads  through  the  valley. 
The  bed  of  the  river  is  among  spur  cliffs  and  broken 
mountain  walls  on  either  side,  out  of  which  plunge 
miniature  Niagaras.  The  stream  is  bordered  by  wil- 
lows. It  narrows  until  its  course  is  forced  through 
a cliff  which  rises  sheer  in  front  to  the  height  of  700 
or  800  feet  and  is  known  as  the  Angustora,  or  Narrow 
Way.  The  needle-point  chasm  made  by  the  river 
has  been  enlarged  by  artificial  means,  and  the  narrow 
way  is  wide  enough  for  ox-carts. 

After  the  Angustora  the  course  broadens  again  into 
the  valley.  The  stream  is  very  crooked  and  has  to  be 
forded  often.  At  this  season  the  fording  was  not  diffi- 
cult, but  in  January  and  February,  when  the  rains  come, 
the  only  passage  is  along  a trail  well  up  the  side  of  the 
precipice,  for  the  river-bed  is  a tumultuous  torrent. 

Tupiza  lies  in  this  vale  of  Santa  Rosa,  the  brook 
being  an  affluent  of  the  San  Juan  and  sometimes  called 
the  San  Juan.  I entered  the  village  by  moonlight. 
I left  it  early  one  morning  by  starlight.  The  night 
of  my  arrival  fourteen  hours  continuously  in  the 
saddle  had  wearied  me  greatly,  yet  the  physical  sen- 
sation disappeared  in  an  instant  on  entering  the  beau- 
tiful valley,  bathed  as  it  was  in  the  soft  moonlight. 
When  taking  a last  look  at  it,  there  was  the  same 
impression  of  charm.  The  river  is  fringed  by  droop- 
ing, feathery  willows  of  the  softest  and  most  velvety 
green.  They  seem  to  be  taking  a perpetual  bath  in 
the  dews.  There  are  also  the  pepper  trees.  After 
a long  desert  ride  the  sober  verdure  of  these  trees 
is  always  refreshing.  It  is  a harbinger  of  revivified 
Nature,  but  here  in  contrast  with  the  glistening  green 
willows  they  are  th?  merest  drabs. 


284 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


The  mountains  which  shut  in  the  valley  are  brown, 
with  granite  flanks  exposed;  and  the  sunsets — ah! 
the  artist  would  have  to  penetrate  this  lovely  region 
to  see  whether  the  miracle  of  silver  gray  changing  into 
impalpable  azure  and  then  flaming  into  red  prairie  fire 
can  be  transferred  to  canvas. 

Tupiza  is  the  most  important  place  in  southern 
Bolivia.  It  is  the  gateway  north,  south,  east,  and  west. 
It  is  9,800  feet  above  sea-level.  The  town  has  5,000 
inhabitants,  and  is  the  head  of  administration  for  the 
department.  The  church  edifice  has  twin  towers  and 
a blue  front,  with  much  gaudy  and  gingerbread  orna- 
mentation inside  and  out.  The  government  build- 
ing, which  includes  the  custom  house,  post-office,  and 
telegraph  office,  is  more  tasteful.  It  is  of  two  stories, 
with  brown  front  and  with  arcade  windows.  There 
are  a few  two-story  houses  with  narrow  window  bal- 
conies, but  the  dwellings  are  mostly  of  one  story,  with 
sloping  grass-thatched  roofs  and  whitewashed  or  dark 
blue  fronts.  They  have  square  inner  courts,  or  patios^ 
and  are  without  windows  opening  on  the  streets.  As 
the  street  door  is  kept  closed,  there  is  complete  seclu- 
sion from  outside  life. 

The  plaza  is  ornamented  with  feathery  willow  trees, 
under  one  of  which  in  the  heat  of  the  day  the  public 
business  is  transacted,  the  desks  and  chairs  being 
moved  out  from  the  government  building.  I watched 
the  process  for  a couple  of  hours  one  day,  and  found 
it  a not  unpleasing  picture  of  local  and  patriarchal 
administration.  A fountain  in  the  centre  of  the  plaza 
at  all  hours  is  thronged  by  the  men  and  women  with 
their  earthen  water-jars,  gossiping  and  quarrelling. 
There  are  many  small  shops  for  the  sale  of  fruits. 


THE  ROYAL  ANDES 


285 


vegetables,  and  gaudy  handkerchiefs.  The  women 
venders  exercise  squatter  sovereignty  on  every  street 
corner. 

Ladies’  fashions  are  of  so  world-wide  an  interest 
that  I digress  to  describe  them  as  they  were  seen  at 
Tupiza,  as  I had  seen  them  in  the  primitive  villages 
of  Nazarene  and  Suipacha,  as  I saw  them  afterward  at 
Uyuni  and  other  places,  including  the  capital. 

The  prized  possession  of  the  Bolivian  Indian  woman, 
and  her  chief  pride  also,  whether  she  is  pure  Indian 
or  choluy  is  her  petticoat.  Her  dowry  is  in  this  gar- 
ment. Like  the  Dutch  woman  of  tradition,  she  carries 
her  wealth  about  her.  These  petticoats  are  of  all  the 
colors  of  the  rainbow  and  divers  other  hues  not  found 
therein.  I first  noticed  them  at  Nazarene,  and  re- 
marked the  love  of  color,  which  must  be  inborn,  for 
the  garments  were  of  purple,  violet,  fiery  red,  crimson, 
scarlet,  subdued  orange,  glaring  saffron,  blue,  and 
green.  They  were  very  short,  reaching  barely  below 
the  knee,  and  no  difference  was  observed  between 
childhood,  maidenhood,  matronly  middle  life,  and 
wrinkled  old  age.  Glancing  from  my  window  in 
Tupiza,  I thought  it  was  a parade  of  perambulating 
balloons. 

The  more  well-to-do  of  the  Indian  women  have 
stockings  and  shoes,  but  the  love  of  color  does  not  ex- 
tend to  the  hosiery.  Most  of  this  wear  is  of  ordinary 
brown  or  black.  There  is,  however,  pride  and  some- 
thing like  social  distinction  with  regard  to  the  foot- 
wear. I was  amused  on  seeing  the  number  of  russet 
gaiters.  Later  at  Uyuni  I remarked  that  the  pf^vail- 
ing  fashion  was  high-heeled  French  gaiters,  but  in 
Tupiza  and  the  other  villages  the  extreme  was  not  so 


286 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


great.  Nor  does  the  possession  of  the  shoes  make 
stockings  necessary.  Many  of  the  Indian  women  with 
their  plethora  of  petticoats  apparently  consider  the 
acme  reached  if  they  can  also  have  shoes,  and  do  not 
fret  themselves  over  hosiery. 

These  women  have  a habit  which  the  bashful 
traveller  does  not  at  first  understand.  When  he  sees 
one  of  them  calmly  removing  a petticoat,  he  is  apt  to 
turn  away,  but  he  need  not  do  so.  It  may  be  that 
the  advancing  heat  of  the  day  has  caused  the  wearer 
to  discard  the  outer  skirt,  but  more  likely  it  is  the 
vanity  of  her  sex,  and  the  desire  to  make  her  sisters 
envious  by  showing  what  is  beneath,  for  each  new 
vesture  disclosed  is  more  brilliant  than  the  one  which 
overlapped  it.  I sat  in  the  plaza  at  Tupiza  and 
watched  two  Indian  women  try  to  make  each  other 
envious.  The  first  one  removed  the  outer  petticoat, 
which  was  of  purple.  This  divestment  disclosed  an- 
other garment  of  blazing  red,  and  after  that  came  a 
brilliant  yellow.  The  other  woman  started  with  a 
green  petticoat,  and  gradually  got  down  to  a mixture 
of  blue  and  yellow.  By  that  time  I had  begun  to  fear 
for  the  consequences,  and  made  a pretence  of  turning 
my  back  by  strolling  to  the  hotel. 

From  Tupiza  to  Uyuni  is  three  days’  hard  riding 
with  horse  or  mule,  and  usually  it  is  nearer  four.  The 
region  is  graphic  in  its  grandeur  of  conical  peaks, 
Chorolque,  Guadalupe,  Cotaigata,  Ubina,  eternally 
snow-covered,  which  hold  beneath  their  granite  domes 
a mass  of  mineral  wealth  that  is  for  the  centuries. 
The'trail  by  which  one  passes  is  along  the  torn  flanks 
and  through  the  harsh  passes  of  the  Chichas  and  the 
San  Vicente  ranges. 


Sandstone  Pillars  near  Tupiza 


THE  ROYAL  ANDES 


287 


The  morning  we  left  we  followed  the  river-bed, 
passed  some  good  farms  and  mud  huts,  and  continued 
through  a pasturage  on  which  were  grazing  goats, 
llamas,  and  sheep.  The  vegetation  was  of  yellow 
mustard  flowers  in  bloom,  pale  cactus  stalks,  brown 
thorn-trees,  and  clumps  of  russet  grass.  There  are  a 
big,  gaudy  ranch-house,  which  looks  like  an  imitation 
French  castle,  and  an  ornate  little  chapel  at  the  head 
of  the  valley  before  it  narrows  into  a chain  of  crooked 
gorges.  The  mountains  seem  to  lie  squarely  across 
the  way  in  irregular  masses,  like  gigantic  wedges,  but 
there  are  abrupt  hatchet  gashes  in  the  sides  and  many 
defiles,  crevasses,  and  chasms. 

A few  miles  from  Tupiza  the  geological  formation 
is  very  curious.  At  a distance  the  appearance  is  that 
of  an  old  city  of  crumbling  brown  cathedrals,  towers, 
buildings,  and  solitary  sentinels.  The  sandstone  for- 
mations resemble  brown  Instead  of  crystal  stalagmites. 
Some  of  the  figures  are  strikingly  grotesque.  It  is 
really  a series  of  crenellated  mud  mountains  which 
have  been  worn  by  the  atmosphere  and  the  water  cut- 
ting down  and  washing  away  the  earth. 

The  first  stopping-place  is  the  hamlet  of  Ingenia. 
This  place  has  a tambo  and  a mud  chapel  and  church. 
The  Indian  natives  were  blear-eyed,  dirty,  and  the 
most  repulsive  that  I met  anywhere,  but  they  were 
devout  and  hospitable.  They  escorted  me  to  the 
chapel  to  see  the  image  of  the  Virgin,  which  had  some 
special  history,  and  they  got  some  fresh  eggs  for  me. 
The  altitude  of  Ingenia  is  10,200  feet.  I set  out  in 
the  early  morning  with  my  pack  animals  and  muleteer, 
all  of  us  in  ill  humor  because  of  a bad  night’s  enter- 
tainment. The  day’s  journey  to  Escariano,  the  next 


288 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


lodging-place,  was  not  a long  one.  Beyond  Ingenia 
the  river  course  is  narrow,  and  allows  no  room  for 
ranches  or  even  farms  of  the  ordinary  size,  though  there 
are  some  pasturage  and  a weedy  kind  of  grass,  scrub 
fir,  or  juniper.  I was  surprised  at  the  number  of  quail 
which  started  up  from  every  bush,  and  also  at  the 
variety  of  song-birds  that  hardly  would  be  looked  for 
in  a treeless  country. 

Two  or  three  hours  from  Ingenia  the  thread  of  the 
trail  along  the  margin  of  the  ravine  narrows  until  it 
is  not  possible  for  animals  or  persons  to  pass.  On 
entering  the  long  canon  it  is  necessary  to  call  out  and 
make  sure  that  no  one  is  coming  from  the  opposite 
direction.  The  echoes  rumble  through  the  gorges 
and  finally  die  away.  If  no  answering  call  is  heard,  it 
is  safe  to  go  forward  along  the  edge  of  the  sloping 
precipice.  Sometimes  tropas,  or  droves  of  burros  and 
llamas,  get  into  this  gorge  from  both  entrances,  and 
then  there  is  a controversy,  and  also  a difficulty  about 
backing  out  until  space  can  be  found  for  passing. 

The  canon  opens  into  a circle  of  slaty  limestone 
hills,  which  have  to  be  climbed  and  descended  with 
considerable  care.  There  are  some  white  cactus  bulbs 
with  yellow  flowers,  and  also  in  this  locality  some 
abandoned  mine  shafts.  The  cost  of  fuel  and  of  freight 
transport  made  it  necessary  to  close  the  mines  until  a 
railroad  shall  be  built. 

An  incident  of  the  day  is  thunder  and  a threatened 
rain.  A ragged  purple  curtain  hangs  over  the  summit 
of  Guadalupe,  but  that  is  far  away  and  the  clouds  pass. 
They  are  followed  by  a soft  wind  which  grows  almost 
into  a gale. 

These  winds  are  said  by  the  Indians  to  cause  the 


THE  ROYAL  ANDES 


289 


siroche,  which  is  the  dread  both  of  the  natives  and  of 
travellers.  Some  authorities  claim  that  the  illness  is 
due  to  the  presence  in  the  earth  of  minerals,  which  are 
exhaled  like  gases  and  poison  the  atmosphere.  I had 
been  warned  especially  against  this  sickness  when 
crossing  the  sierras  between  Tupiza  and  Uyuni,  but 
during  my  travels  in  the  Andes  I experienced  only 
one  attack  of  siroche,  and  this  was  before  reaching 
Tupiza.  It  had  been  a long  morning  climb  and  ride 
across  sandy  plains  and  among  the  cactus  and  fir 
underbrush.  Coming  up  gradually  from  the  sea- 
level  and  by  slow  stages,  I had  not  felt  any  serious 
apprehension,  though  somewhat  troubled  by  a neu- 
ralgic headache  and  by  just  the  appearance  of  bleeding 
at  the  nostrils. 

That  morning  the  wind  was  blowing  so  softly  that 
it  seemed  to  cradle  itself.  A feeling  of  intense  de- 
pression came  over  me.  It  was  purely  mental,  because 
the  day  had  not  advanced  far  enough  for  the  physical 
fatigue  to  manifest  itself.  I was  out  of  temper,  and 
my  nerves  were  on  edge.  At  noon,  taking  the  obser- 
vation of  the  temperature  by  means  of  a Centigrade 
thermometer,  I found  myself  in  a hopeless  muddle  in 
trying  to  reduce  it  to  Fahrenheit.  The  method  was 
absolutely  clear  in  my  mind,  — “ divide  by  5,  multiply 
by  9,  add  32,”  — but  at  every  calculation  the  result 
was  different,  though  I was  certain  I was  following  the 
rule.  Finally  I turned  to  the  muleteer  and  asked  him 
crossly,  “ Loreto,  what ’s  the  matter  with  me  ? ” “ It ’s 
the  siroche,  sir,”  he  explained.  “ The  wind  is  very  bad 
to-day,  but  if  you  can  keep  on  for  a few  hours  we  ’ll  be 
all  right.”  Then  he  looked  at  me  a little  suspiciously 
and  said,  “ I don’t  think  we  had  better  stop  here.” 

19 


290 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


I had  no  desire  to  stop  there  under  the  savage  sun, 
while  the  wind  was  forming  white  mantles  of  sand  on 
the  fir  bushes,  and  told  him  we  would  go  on.  We 
kept  on,  and  I began  to  feel  myself  again,  though  for 
a period  of  perhaps  six  hours  I was  in  a condition  of 
collapse  similar  to  that  which  I often  had  experienced 
following  attacks  of  sea-sickness.  In  my  own  case, 
however,  there  was  none  of  the  nausea  which  accom.- 
panies  that  distressing  malady,  and  which  with  most 
persons  is  also  an  incident  of  siroche.  My  muleteer’s 
fear  was  that  I would  insist  on  stopping  or  on  turning 
back.  He  had  had  that  trouble  with  two  or  three 
persons  whom  he  had  guided  over  the  mountains, 
and,  as  he  told  me,  they  had  given  him  a great  deal 
of  worry  by  their  whims. 

Having  had  this  attack,  I was  a little  apprehensive 
with  regard  to  crossing  the  punas,  or  table-lands,  from 
Tupiza  to  Uyuni,  and  I could  see  that  my  arriero  also 
was  watchful.  But  I felt  not  the  slightest  symptoms. 
Mining  engineers  who  make  that  journey  two  or  three 
times  a year  told  me  that  they  always  suffered  from 
the  siroche.  Animals  likewise  suffer  from  it.  The 
horse  is  of  little  use  in  these  altitudes,  and  the  mules 
are  not  immune.  My  own  pack  animals  gave  out 
twice. 

My  greatest  annoyance  was  from  the  blistering  and 
bleeding  of  the  lips  due  to  the  dry  wind.  The  natives 
grow  expert  enough  to  save  themselves  by  means  of 
scarfs  while  riding,  but  I found  that  this  method  gave 
me  no  protection.  My  lips  were  swollen  unnaturally, 
and  local  applications  did  not  reduce  the  swelling  or 
the  pain  except  temporarily  at  night.  It  was  weeks 
before  they  became  normal,  and  this  I found  was  the 


THE  ROYAL  ANDES 


291 


gravest  inconvenience  in  traversing  the  punas.  My 
nerves  also  were  under  intense  strain.  That  tension 
is  unavoidable  so  high  up,  but  it  is  something  that 
gradually  can  be  overcome.  After  living  a month  at 
an  altitude  of  12,000  to  14,000  feet,  I experienced  little 
annoyance  from  keyed-up  nerves. 

The  increased  heart  movement  is  something  which 
no  one  can  escape,  and  it  varies  only  in  degree  accord- 
ing to  the  individual.  Jogging  along  comfortably  on 
the  back  of  a mule,  the  accelerated  action  is  not  appre- 
ciated, but  let  the  traveller  get  off  to  rest  the  animal 
by  walking  and  he  quickly  discovers  the  limit  of  his 
exertion.  In  my  own  case  I found  it  easier  to  climb 
the  hills  afoot  than  to  descend  them,  the  heart  appar- 
ently pumping  with  more  regularity  on  the  up-grade. 
But  at  night,  after  a hard  day’s  travel,  on  lying  down 
to  sleep  it  would  be  half  an  hour  to  an  hour  before 
the  trip-hammer  beating  would  lull  itself  away  into 
slower  and  more  regular  palpitations. 

From  Escariano  to  Tambilla  is  a wearying  ride. 
The  course  is  across  gorges  and  chasms,  up  the  dry 
river-bed,  then  down  for  a good  many  hundred  feet 
and  again  up  into  white  plains  covered  with  scrub. 
The  longest  climb  is  up  the  corkscrew  height  of 
Portugalete.  It  would  be  not  only  cruelty,  but  physi- 
cal impossibility,  to  surmount  this  summit  on  the  back 
of  a mule,  and  I trudged  it  at  an  even  pace  with  the 
panting  pack  animals.  The  pass  or  gateway  of  Por- 
tugalete is  14,137  feet  above  sea-level.  Through  this 
pass  the  railroad  will  wriggle  its  way. 

After  the  divide  was  reached  the  descent  was  fairly 
steady,  though  abrupt.  Guadalupe  was  in  sight  part 
of  the  day,  and  there  were  also  glimpses  of  other  peaks. 


292 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


snow-covered,  while  in  some  of  the  transverse  gorges 
which  the  sun  did  not  penetrate  I saw  the  perpetual 
ice  and  snow.  I stopped  two  or  three  times  to  gather 
a handful  of  snow,  and  then  climbed  back  on  the  mule, 
passing  in  a very  brief  space  of  time  from  temperature 
below  freezing  to  90°  or  95°  Fahrenheit.  On  this 
slope  were  pasturing  many  alpacas  and  other  sheep  as 
well  as  goats  and  llamas. 

During  that  long  day  we  passed  just  two  human 
dwellings,  adobe  huts,  and  reached  Tambilla  after 
nightfall.  Tambilla  lies  in  a valley,  but  its  altitude  is 
12,900  feet.  The  Indians  who  kept  the  tambo  were 
very  indifferent  to  our  comfort.  They  were  having 
some  kind  of  a celebration,  and  at  first  professed  not 
to  understand  Spanish.  As  the  arriero  knew  a little 
Quichua,  he  went  after  them  in  the  Indian  vernacular, 
and  I swore  some  Spanish  oaths,  which  were  not  nice 
but  which  brought  out  sullen  rejoinders  and  the  prom- 
ise of  something  to  eat.  This  was  prepared  in  time, — 
the  usual  chupe,  — but  having  seen  its  preparation,  my 
stomach  revolted,  and  I went  to  bed  after  partaking 
of  hot  coffee  and  crackers.  During  the  night  a freight 
train  arrived,  burros  laden  with  dynamite  for  the 
mines,  and  I felt  satisfaction  in  hearing  the  freighters, 
all  of  whom  were  natives,  take  possession  of  the  sleep- 
ing quarters  of  the  inmates  of  the  tambo. 

It  was  a relief  to  get  away  in  the  early  morning 
long  before  sunrise.  The  sun  disclosed  the  edges  of 
a vast  mountain  plain,  with  sand-dunes  and  scrub 
breaking  its  monotonous  stretch  and  a rim  of  chalk- 
white  mountains  enclosing  the  whole  basin.  This  was 
the  Sierra  of  San  Vicente.  Again  I noticed  the  pres- 
ence of  both  quail  and  song-birds.  About  noon  we 


Bolivian  Indian  Women  Weaving 


Avmara  Indian  Woman  and  Child 


THE  ROYAL  ANDES 


293 


reached  a bend  in  the  dry  river-bed  and  even  a rivulet 
of  water.  A ruined  cabin  and  a corral  fallen  into 
disuse  were  here.  In  front  were  two  graves  marked 
by  stones  and  a rude  cross.  My  muleteer  mused  a 
moment.  He  pointed  to  the  cabin,  then  to  the 
graves,  and  shook  his  head.  “ I was  here  a year  ago, 
Senor,”  he  said,  “and  they  [pointing  to  the  graves 
as  though  he  could  see  their  tenants]  were  there 
[pointing  to  the  cabin]  then.” 

The  afternoon  was  a gradual  but  steady  climb  among 
vast  sheep  pastures  which  were  still  peopled  with  many 
flocks,  although  nearly  all  the  huts  had  been  aban- 
doned by  their  human  dwellers.  Toward  evening  after 
another  long  ascent  we  crossed  an  easy  gradation  of 
summits  and  then  down  to  Amachuma.  It  is  12,444 
feet  above  sea-level.  The  Indians  at  Amachuma  were 
indifferently  hospitable.  At  first  they  professed  igno- 
rance of  any  language  except  Quichua,  but  later,  when 
the  government  innkeeper  appeared,  we  got  passable 
accommodations,  one  of  the  mud  benches  along  the 
wall  being  cleared  of  the  dogs  and  the  natives  in  order 
that  I might  spread  my  blankets. 

From  Amachuma  the  next  morning  we  rode  for  two 
hours  up  and  across  the  chalk-white  hills,  and  then  a 
dark  ribbon  forked  out  on  a vast  plain  below.  “ That 
is  Uyuni,”  said  Loreto,  my  muleteer,  simply.  It  lay 
against  the  horizon  like  a frozen  sea.  For  the  first 
time  in  weeks  Loreto  became  enthusiastic.  “ There 
[to  the  north]  is  Oruro ; there  [to  the  south]  is  Anto- 
fagasta ; there  [to  the  east]  the  Potosi  silver  mines  ; 
here,  Huanchaca  silver  mines ; but,  Senor,  there  is  no 
water  in  Uyuni  for  my  mules.  I shall  have  to  lead 
them  back  here  to-night.” 


294 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


Uyuni  is  a waterless  oasis  on  the  salt  pampa. 

Two  hours  descending  through  the  white  sand  and 
scrub  and  we  were  on  the  outskirts  of  the  place.  The 
most  prominent  spot  which  we  had  seen  proved  to  be 
the  cemetery.  The  town  is  a staked,  plain  kind  of 
settlement,  without  shrub  or  tree.  The  railroad  yard, 
enclosed  by  a corrugated  iron  fence  stockade,  takes  in 
most  of  the  municipal  territory.  Caravans  of  llamas 
and  droves  of  burros  and  mules  filled  the  streets. 
Much  of  the  freighting  is  done  by  the  llamas.  There 
are  many  small  shops  and  several  very  extensive  ware- 
houses and  supply  stores. 

Uyuni  is  an  outfitting  and  shipping  centre.  It  is 
on  the  edge  of  one  of  the  most  productive  and  varied 
mineral  districts  in  Bolivia.  In  1885  there  was  almost 
no  settlement,  but  the  development  of  the  Huanchaca 
and  the  other  mines  made  a town  necessary.  Huan-- 
chaca  is  nine  miles  away  on  the  railroad  spur.  Though 
the  company  a few  years  ago  was  compelled  to  spend 
a large  amount  of  money  in  pumping  out  the  Pulacayo 
mines,  the  output  was  diminished  only  temporarily.  It 
furnishes  the  bulk  of  the  freight  down  the  railroad  to 
the  coast  at  Antofagasta. 

Everybody  in  Uyuni  is  an  enthusiast  on  mines.  I 
felt  myself  in  Colorado  or  the  Black  Hills  when  the  local 
judge  and  a party  of  citizens  came  to  welcome  me.  The 
judge  drew  a rough  map  of  the  district.  “ Here,” 
he  said,  “ is  tin  ; there,  gold  ; yonder,  silver;  over  there, 
copper  ; out  this  way,  borax  ; off  here,  bismuth  ; this 
way,  lead  ; a little  beyond,  antimony.”  He  and  his 
fellow-citizens  were  very  anxious  for  the  railroad  to  be 
built  to  Guadalupe  and  Tupiza,  so  that  the  mineral 
industry  could  be  assured  of  transportation  facilities. 


THE  ROYAL  ANDES 


295 


In  strolling  about  I observed  all  the  characteristics 
of  the  native  Indian  race,  and  of  the  cholos.  The  fond- 
ness of  the  women  for  bright  petticoats  and  French 
gaiters  I have  recounted.  It  affords  a lesson  to  the 
political  economist  by  showing  that  artificial  wants  can 
be  created  and  goods  sold  in  remote  communities. 
Not  only  were  French  gaiters  in  demand,  but  gaudy 
handkerchiefs  for  head-dresses  and  also  much  jewelry 
that  was  not  gaudy.  Many  of  the  women  had  finger- 
rings  and  ear-rings  of  gold.  They  appeared  superior 
to  the  men,  who  are  given  to  imbibing  alcohol.  But 
I would  not  be  too  censorious.  I had  seen  these 
men  in  the  desolate,  lonely  passes  and  on  the  dreary 
sand-plains,  and  was  not  sure,  if  my  life  from  New 
Year’s  to  New  Year’s  had  to  be  passed  in  the  same 
way,  that  whenever  I got  into  Uyuni  with  a chance 
for  human  companionship,  I also  would  not  get 
drunk. 

Uyuni  is  intensely  cold,  lying,  as  the  town  does,  at 
an  altitude  of  12,100  feet  under  the  snow  mountains 
which  send  down  their  icy  breath,  and  on  the  salt 
plains  which,  when  the  rays  of  the  sun  are  off  them, 
are  scarcely  less  chilling.  The  legend  told  every  new- 
comer is  of  going  to  bed  with  a bottle  of  hot  water 
to  keep  the  feet  warm,  and  waking  up  to  find  the 
glass  in  fragments  and  the  ice  retaining  the  perfect 
form  of  the  bottle.  I did  not  have  this  experience, 
but  in  September,  which  is  in  the  beginning  of  Spring, 
the  cold  was  penetrating  enough  to  make  me  believe 
the  story. 

I noted  on  Sunday  several  foreign  flags  flying  over 
various  consulates ; and  this  was  a reminder  that  Uyuni, 
through  its  commercial  and  mining  interests,  is  a kind 


296 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


of  international  centre.  The  Italians,  French,  Ger- 
mans, and  Chileans  have  the  largest  interests  among 
the  foreigners,  though  a fair  proportion  of  the  business 
is  in  the  hands  of  Bolivians.  Some  of  the  foreigners 
originally  came  over  the  trail  from  Argentina.  More 
of  them  followed  the  routes  of  travel  from  the  Pacific. 


CHAPTER  XIX 


WAYFARING  IN  BOLIVIA.  — THE  CENTRAL  PLATEAU 

A Hill-broken  Table-land  — By  Rail  along  the  Cordillera  of  the 
Friars  — Challapata  and  Lake  Poopo  — Smelters  — Spanish 
Ear-marks  in  Oruro  — By  Stage  to  La  Paso  — Fellow- 
passengers  — Misadventures  — Indian  Tombs  at  Caracollo  — 
Sicasica  a High-up  Town^  1/f.^ooo  Feet  — Meeting-place  of 
^uichuas  and  Aytnards  — First  Sight  of  the  Famed  Illimani 
Peaks  — Characteristics  of  the  Indian  Life  — Responsibility 
of  the  Priesthood  — Position  of  the  W omen  — Panorama  of 
La  Paso  froon  the  Heights  — The  Capital  in  Fact  — Cosmo- 
politan Society. 


HE  Altiplanicie,  or  Great  Central  Plateau,  be- 


cause of  its  mineral  riches,  was  called  by  the 
geographer  Raimondi  a gold  table  with  silver  legs. 
Once  the  bed  of  a vast  inland  sea,  the  table-land  now 
forms  the  Titicaca  basin  and  lies  between  the  Oriental 
and  the  Occidental  Cordilleras.  Its  surface  is  broken 
by  many  conical  hills  and  small  sierras,  supposedly 
the  result  of  volcanic  eruptions,  yet  it  comes  within 
the  definition  of  level  country  as  level  country  is 
understood  in  the  Andine  regions.  The  southern 
zone  of  the  Altiplanicie  has  been  aptly  described  as 
a solid  cape  of  salt. 

From  Uyuni,  in  the  lower  corner  of  the  great  plain, 
the  railway  skirts  along  the  mountain  range  known 
as  the  Cordillera  of  the  Friars.  The  road  crosses  the 
salt  pampas  and  winds  among  the  foothills  and  along 
the  Marques  River  into  agricultural  lands,  chiefly 


298  PANxVMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


grazing,  with  pasturage  for  some  cattle,  donkeys,  and 
llamas,  and  many  sheep.  There  are  a number  of  vil- 
lages, always  with  a little  church  in  the  centre.  The 
September  day  on  which  I took  the  trip  the  people 
were  making  a romeria,  or  pilgrimage,  from  hamlet 
to  hamlet,  to  celebrate  one  of  the  numerous  religious 
holidays. 

During  the  first  three  hours  weather  changes  were 
swift  and  sharp, — heavy  clouds,  thunder,  the  first  rain 
I had  experienced  for  weeks,  a whirling  dust-storm, 
thunder  again  with  looped  lightning,  pelting  hail,  and 
finally  blinding  snow.  My  fellow-passengers  were 
Bolivian  business  men  and  their  families,  and  English 
and  German  mining  superintendents.  An  excellent 
breakfast  was  served  in  the  station  at  Sevaruyo. 

The  principal  town  on  the  line  is  Challapata,  near 
the  borders  of  Lake  Poopo.  Challapata  is  a starting- 
point  for  Sucre.  Sucre  is  the  old  capital  of  Bolivia, — 
an  historic  city  and  a very  rich  one,  lying  in  a fertile 
valley  but  very  remote  from  the  highways  of  travel. 
Few  foreigners  or  natives  in  Bolivia  know  how  to  find 
it.  The  most  confusing  directions  are  given  in  re- 
gard to  reaching  it.  A trail  or  cart-road  of  a very 
hard  kind  to  travel  runs  from  Tupiza  to  Sucre,  and 
in  La  Paz  I was  gravely  told  that  to  get  there  I 
would  have  to  go  to  Tupiza.  Other  directions  are 
as  vague.  The  shortest  way  from  either  La  Paz  or 
from  the  coast  is  to  proceed  to  Challapata  and  then 
procure  mules  to  Sucre,  though  for  two  days  the  jour- 
ney may  be  followed  by  means  of  a stage  or  similar 
vehicle. 

Lake  Poopo  is  a teacup  beside  a soup-tureen  in 
comparison  with  Lake  Titicaca ; yet  it  receives  the 


THE  CENTRAL  PLATEAU  299 


waters  of  that  lake,  which  is  not  an  evaporating  pan, 
through  the  Desaguadero  River,  and  then  loses  them 
in  the  Laca-Amra,  a disappearing  and  reappearing 
stream.  Only  one  gallon  in  a hundred  of  the  water 
drained  into  Lake  Poopo  by  the  Desaguadero  is 
carried  off  by  other  streams.  The  Titicaca  current 
is  23.73  metres  per  minute,  and  the  volume  of  the 
Desaguadero  is  4,822.5  cubic  metres  per  minute. 

From  Poopo  on  to  Oruro  I noted  a succession  of 
smoke-stacks  from  the  smelters,  and  very  apparent 
evidences  of  the  mining  industry.  After  that  it  was 
all  mine  sights  and  mine  talk.  There  is  a large 
foreign  colony,  which  includes  Yankees,  Englishmen, 
Germans,  and  Chileans.  The  town  is  a bare  sort 
of  place,  with  the  shafts  gaping  from  the  mountains 
all  around.  It  has  a population  of  10,000,  a news- 
paper, two  banks,  and  some  extensive  commercial 
establishments. 

Oruro  is  an  old  town,  and  still  shows  many  Span- 
ish ear-marks.  The  Jesuit  chronicles  say  that  in 
the  height  of  the  mining  fever,  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  it  had  70,000  inhabitants.  The  streets  are 
narrow,  and  the  buildings  have  balconies  and  over- 
hanging eaves.  The  local  administration  is  progres- 
sive, and  the  plaza  is  an  evidence  of  local  public 
spirit.  It  has  a fountain  in  the  centre,  and  some  ef- 
fort at  adornment  has  been  made  by  fencing  in  the 
flower-plats.  The  pilgrimage  of  women  and  children 
to  and  from  the  fountain  with  their  water-jars  is  an 
endless  one.  There  is  a military  garrison  and  a 
Cabildo^  or  municipal  headquarters.  In  the  market 
are  the  women  venders,  decked  out  in  their  brilliant 
petticoats,  selling  onions,  fruits,  fish,  rock  salt,  and 


300  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


the  other  commodities  of  humble  life.  Here,  as  in 
Uyuni,  I observed  many  kindly  and  intelligent  faces 
among  them,  and  they  seemed  to  me  superior  to 
the  men.  The  latter  are  the  cargadores,  or  burden- 
bearers.  They  travel  around  with  their  backs  bent, 
pedler  fashion,  even  when  they  have  no  burden. 

Oruro’s  climate  cannot  be  made  a subject  of  local 
pride.  It  is  raw  and  rainy,  with  snow  in  the  morning 
which  melts  quickly  under  the  sun.  The  mean  average 
temperature  as  I gleaned  from  the  local  records  is  43° 
Fahrenheit,  but  in  the  month  of  November  the  ex- 
tremes are  68°  and  34°.  An  ordinary  year  has  54 
days  of  rain,  8 days  of  heavy  snow,  and  52  days  of 
sleety  winds.  The  mineral  resources  of  the  sub- 
Andine  region,  of  which  Oruro  is  the  centre,  com- 
pensate for  its  lack  of  genial  temperature.  The  most 
important  of  the  mines  is  the  San  Jose,  which  pro- 
duces both  tin  and  silver. 

La  Paz  by  the  stage  route  is  160  miles  from  Oruro. 
When  the  railroad  is  completed,  the  distance  will  be 
shortened  a little,  though  the  same  general  course  will 
be  followed.  I left  Oruro  one  September  morning 
in  the  diligencia.  The  transportation  had  been  con- 
trolled by  a pair  of  Scotchmen,  and  it  was  gener- 
ally praised  for  the  service,  but  they  turned  it  over  to 
local  management  and  then  there  was  nothing  to 
praise.  We  had  a dozen  passengers,  though  only 
room  for  ten.  They  included  a Peruvian  gentleman 
and  his  Chilean  wife  ; two  Chilean  rotos,  or  rough-and- 
ready  workers  who  were  going  to  La  Paz  to  take  jobs  ; 
a party  of  Italian  pedestrians  who  walked  in  this 
manner;  a German  drummer;  a native  merchant, 
and  myself.  The  route  followed  the  pampa  along 


THE  CENTRAL  PLATEAU 


301 


the  edge  of  the  mountain  range,  and  as  there  had 
been  local  snow-storms  the  regular  line  of  white 
silhouettes  glistening  in  the  sunlight  presented  a most 
exquisite  sight.  But  the  road  was  very  heavy,  and  our 
six  mules  had  difficulty  in  pulling  the  stage  from  one 
mud  hole  to  another. 

At  noon  we  were  mired.  It  rained  and  hailed 
throughout  the  afternoon.  One  of  the  Italians,  after 
a long  parley  with  the  driver  and  the  Indian  postilion, 
took  a mule  from  the  traces  and  started  for  the  ham- 
let, which  lay  eight  miles  farther  on,  to  see  if  means 
could  not  be  found  for  transferring  us. 

About  nine  o’clock  through  the  darkness  we  heard 
shouts,  and  found  that  a carreta^  or  two-wheeled  cart, 
with  four  mules  had  been  sent  to  our  rescue.  No 
promise  was  held  out  to  us  of  reaching  the  village,  but 
the  stage  was  so  uncomfortably  crowded  that  some  of 
us  felt  bound  to  make  room  for  those  who  preferred 
to  remain.  We  clambered  out,  and  the  outrider  took 
us  on  his  shoulders  and  waded  through  the  mud  till 
he  was  able  to  drop  us  into  the  cart.  He  had  been 
picked  up  somewhere  along  the  way.  Without  him 
we  would  have  had  to  pass  the  hours  till  morning  in 
the  open  carreta.  The  wind  was  biting,  and  though 
wrapped  in  heavy  overcoats  and  blankets,  we  could 
not  keep  the  chill  from  our  marrow-bones. 

The  night  was  so  black  that  nothing  could  be  seen 
ahead  except  the  moving  silhouette  of  the  Indian 
guide.  I learned  on  this  occasion  of  the  endurance 
of  this  class  of  natives.  Our  postilion  was  barefoot, 
clad  only  in  thin  cotton  trousers  and  some  kind  of 
shirt,  yet  he  plunged  through  the  ponds,  waded  the 
creeks,  and  marked  out  a course  for  the  mules,  urged 


302 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


by  their  hoarse,  screeching  driver,  to  follow.  When 
they  got  mired,  he  was  at  their  heads  or  at  their  heels, 
yelling  at  them  in  the  Aymara  tongue  with  the  hearti- 
ness that  a muleteer  on  the  Western  frontier  will  put 
into  his  coaxing  of  the  same  animals.  After  seeing 
him  set  the  pace,  I could  readily  understand  how  these 
men  could  travel  all  day  on  foot  and  keep  the  animals 
going  at  a good  pace.  Two  or  three  times  we  thought 
we  were  hopelessly  lost,  but  at  last  he  brought  us  into 
the  village  of  Caracollo  and  to  the  tamboy  or  inn. 
The  breakfast  had  been  waiting  since  eleven  o’clock  in 
the  morning.  We  sat  down  to  it  at  a quarter  of  an 
hour  before  midnight.  After  enjoying  the  repast  we 
went  to  bed  commiserating  our  companions  who  were 
huddled  together  in  the  stage  somewhere  back  on  the 
pampa. 

The  next  morning  I made  a little  study  of  native 
life  as  seen  at  Caracollo,  chiefly  in  the  plaza,  which 
was  more  in  the  nature  of  a market-place.  It  was 
under  water,  but  the  Indian  women  were  squatted 
about  selling  their  wares  with  stoical  indifference  to 
personal  comfort.  The  priest  was  fat,  good-natured, 
and  more  intelligent  than  others  of  his  class  whom 
I met.  He  told  us  that  the  Indian  tombs  or  tomb 
dwellings  which  we  saw  on  the  edge  of  the  village 
were  at  least  four  centuries  old  and  were  still  ven- 
erated by  the  natives.  I strolled  up  the  hillside  to 
have  a closer  view  of  them,  and  found  that  they  are 
now  put  to  baser  uses.  The  veneration  of  the  natives 
apparently  is  shown  by  finding  the  shady  side  in  order 
to  take  a snooze  at  mid-day.  Half  a score  of  the 
Indians  were  enjoying  their  siestas. 

The  tombs  are  oblong  in  form,  from  six  to  twelve 


Scene  in  the  Plaza  at  Oruro  — Ancient  Tombs  at  Caracollo  — 
Primitive  Methods  of  Tin-crushing 


THE  CENTRAL  PLATEAU 


303 


feet  high,  and  are  hollow.  Some  are  open  at  the 
top,  but  more  are  closed  and  have  a kind  of  arched 
roof.  All  that  I noticed  opened  or  faced  toward 
the  east.  Some  have  openings  on  each  side.  The 
straw  and  mortar  seemed  to  be  so  fresh  that  it  was 
hard  to  conceive  of  these  monuments  of  the  past 
being  centuries  old,  but  of  the  fact  there  is  no 
question. 

The  stage  managed  to  pull  itself  out  of  the  mud 
and  reach  Caracollo  at  noon.  We  set  off  at  once. 
At  Villa  Villa,  a dreary  spot,  the  eating-house  had 
nothing  ready  for  us  because  we  were  running  off 
schedule  time.  Yet  the  Frenchman  and  his  wife  who 
kept  it  managed  to  provide  us  a mouthful.  They 
were  from  Marseilles.  “ How  did  you  get  away  off 
here?”  I incautiously  asked  him.  He  shrugged  his 
shoulders. 

We  reached  Pandura  at  nightfall  to  find  that  the 
stage  coming  from  La  Paz,  also  running  off  schedule 
time  on  account  of  the  rains  and  the  bad  roads,  had 
arrived  there  ahead  of  us.  Pandura,  which  consists 
of  three  or  four  mud  structures,  by  squeezing  itself 
could  just  shelter  one  set  of  passengers.  There  was 
no  possibility  of  accommodations  for  us,  nothing 
we  could  do  except  to  continue  our  journey  over 
dangerous  roads.  The  more  fortunate  passengers, 
however,  were  very  considerate.  We  could  not  ask 
them  to  give  up  their  beds,  but  they  themselves  vol- 
unteered to  forego  their  dinner.  It  had  been  ordered 
before  our  arrival  and  would  be  ready  in  an  hour. 
Since  they  had  the  whole  night  before  them,  they 
could  wait  for  another  dinner  to  be  prepared.  We 
accepted  their  offer,  and  after  the  meal  had  been  eaten 


304 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


with  gluttonous  appetites,  we  plunged  off  in  the  dark- 
ness. The  animals  were  utterly  worthless  and  could 
barely  drag  us  along.  Where  fresh  mules  were  in 
waiting  they  were  already  blown,  and  the  local  tambo- 
keepers  refused  to  let  us  have  the  animals  which 
were  reserved  for  the  government  mail.  Usually  after 
alternate  threatening  and  cajoling  we  would  get  the 
post  mules,  sometimes  taking  them  forcibly,  and  then 
proceed  a little  better.  But  it  was  a nightmare  of  a 
journey. 

In  the  morning  we  reached  Sicasica.  Sicasica  is  a 
town  of  consequence  and  the  centre  of  a silver-mining 
district.  It  is  one  of  the  highest  inhabited  places  in 
Bolivia,  the  altitude  being  14,000  feet.  It  has  an  old 
Jesuit  church,  built  in  1622,  notable  for  the  fantas- 
tic carving  on  the  lava  stone  exterior  and  for  some 
passable  paintings  on  the  interior  walls  as  well  as  a 
fine  altar. 

Sicasica  is  notable  in  another  way.  It  is  the 
meeting-place,  as  it  were,  where  the  two  distinct  Indian 
races,  the  Aymaras  and  the  Quichuas,  come  front  to 
front.  Heretofore  in  southern  Bolivia  it  was  the 
Quichua  race  I had  met  and  their  language  I had 
heard,  but  from  Sicasica  on  the  Aymaras  were  my 
study.  Both  these  Indian  idioms  are  spoken,  and 
neither  race  learns  the  tongue  of  the  other,  nor  do 
they  have  a common  medium  in  Spanish.  The  local 
Innkeeper  told  me  that  few  of  them  knew  any  Spanish, 
and  that  the  little  intercourse  they  had  with  one 
another  was  more  sign  language  than  anything  else. 
Aymara  was  predominant,  and  its  barking  sounds 
were  heard  in  sharp  contrast  to  the  softer  accents  of 
the  Quichua.  I wandered  into  a girls’  school,  where 


THE  CENTRAL  PLATEAU 


305 


the  little  maids  were  seated  on  vicuna  skins  and,  rock- 
ing forward  and  backward,  were  conning  their  lessons 
aloud  while  the  woman  teacher  accompanied  their 
sing-song,  standing.  There  was  neither  bench  nor 
desk  of  any  kind.  The  primer  was  in  Aymara,  and 
seemed  to  correspond  to  Noah  Webster’s  spelling- 
book. 

In  the  afternoon  we  reached  Ayoayo,  where  a small 
garrison  of  soldiers  is  maintained.  Ayoayo  is  historic 
for  an  uprising  which  was  instigated  by  the  priests 
against  foreigners.  It  resulted  in  a massacre.  The 
place  also  was  the  headquarters  of  a stubborn  Indian 
uprising  against  the  authority  of  the  Bolivian  govern- 
ment. That  was  many  years  back,  and  I do  not  know 
that  the  maintenance  of  a garrison  at  this  time  has 
anything  to  do  with  past  history.  The  officers  were 
bright,  fine-appearing  men ; the  soldiers  were  stolid- 
looking,  but  apparently  were  under  excellent  disci- 
pline. There  are  Indian  tombs  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Ayoayo,  though  not  so  many  as  at  Caracollo. 

After  leaving  Ayoayo  is  the  sublime  sight  of  the 
peerless  Illimani,  — a vision  to  my  mind  equal  to  that 
of  the  famed  Sorata  seen  from  Lake  Titicaca,  and  un- 
surpassed among  the  many  glorious  panoramas  of 
mountain  grandeur  which  the  Bolivian  Andes  afford. 

The  Continental  Andes  fork  northwest  of  Lake 
Titicaca  in  latitude  14°.  The  Occidental  Cordilleras 
trend  south  to  the  Pacific  coast.  The  Oriental  Cor- 
dilleras extend  in  a general  direction  from  northwest 
to  southeast.  They  are  marked  by  three  series  of 
peaks,  — the  Cololo,  which  is  in  Peru  ; the  Illampu  ; 
and  the  Quisma  Cruz,  or  Three  Crosses.  The  greatest 
of  these  are  the  Illampu,  which  begin  with  the  towering 

20 


306 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


glacier  peak  of  Sorata  and  end  with  the  grouped  pin- 
nacles of  the  Illimani.  The  heights  of  the  summits 
according  to  the  best  estimates  vary  from  21,200  feet 
to  21,700  feet.  It  is  this  region  which  entitles  Bolivia 
to  be  called  the  roof  of  the  world  fully  as  much  as 
Thibet. 

On  the  Illimani  the  snows  of  yesterday  are  the 
snows  of  to-morrow.  Their  sublimity  cannot  be 
grasped  at  close  view.  It  is  necessary  to  see  them  at 
a distance  such  as  that  afforded  after  leaving  Ayoayo 
in  order  fully  to  appreciate  their  magnificence,  for  from 
this  point  the  lower  flanks,  brown  and  barren,  are  not 
visible.  A great  wall  of  marble  whiteness,  with  turrets 
and  minarets  surmounting  it,  stretches  along  the  hori- 
zon. When  the  turn  in  the  road  is  made  and  the  slop- 
ing sides  are  in  sight,  the  view  is  grand  enough,  but 
nothing  like  the  first  vision.  The  chain  extends  more 
than  a hundred  miles.  The  cold  from  the  Illimani  is 
felt  very  sensibly,  yet  it  is  a clear  and  crisp  cold  and  is 
not  disagreeable. 

The  night  was  spent  at  Calamarca,  where  we  found 
an  unusually  good  tambo  with  the  rarest  of  innova- 
tions— two  or  three  camp  bedsteads  — and  excellent 
food,  well  cooked  by  the  wife  of  the  innkeeper,  a 
very  intelligent  chola. 

We  left  Calamarca  on  the  fourth  day,  though  we 
should  have  been  in  La  Paz  at  the  end  of  the  second 
day.  The  approach  to  the  capital  is  across  a great 
meseta,  or  mountain  plain.  It  swarms  with  Indian 
life.  All  the  region  between  Oruro  and  La  Paz 
seems  to  be  as  thickly  populated  as  the  land  will  sus- 
tain. The  stage  road  not  only  passes  through  many 
villages,  but  there  are  more  of  these  to  the  right  and 


A Drove  of  Llamas  on  the  Pampa 


THE  CENTRAL  PLATEAU 


307 


to  the  left  a short  distance  from  the  highway.  Some 
of  them  are  not  unattractive  collections  of  adobe  huts, 
and  several  of  the  groups  are  rendered  picturesque  by 
the  big  oval  ovens  or  kilns  almost  as  large  as  the 
cabins  themselves. 

The  life  is  a primitive,  pastoral  one.  Sheep  and 
some  cattle,  alpacas,  llamas,  and  burros  are  raised  and 
graze  on  the  plain  and  in  the  valley.  Maize,  or  In- 
dian corn,  and  a little  wheat  are  grown  along  with  bar- 
ley, and  the  native  cereal  known  as  quinua,  which  is 
like  millet.  The  crops  appear  scanty,  and  the  vege- 
tation at  this  height  is  not  exuberant. 

The  native  existence,  while  not  a joyous  one,  does 
not  appear  to  be  too  sombre.  The  religious  festi- 
vals are  celebrated  with  undeviating  punctuality.  No 
matter  how  small  the  collection  of  huts,  somewhere 
among  them  is  a church,  and  each  group  of  cabins 
has  its  own  curL  I remarked  everywhere  the  grass 
cross  over  the  dwellings.  It  was  very  rare  to  find  a 
hut  without  this  symbolism.  It  seemed  to  indicate 
great  devoutness,  but  what  I had  already  seen  of  the 
curh  and  their  flocks  made  me  doubt  whether  this 
was  the  correct  explanation.  The  cross,  I was  told, 
was  blessed  by  the  priest,  and  then  it  kept  out  the  rain, 
which  at  times  is  very  heavy.  One  old  man,  who, 
after  pretending  that  he  knew  nothing  but  the  Aymara 
tongue,  had  talked  very  well  in  Spanish,  was  asked  if 
the  crosses  really  did  keep  out  the  rain.  He  replied 
gravely,  “ Yes,  if  the  roof  is  a good  one.” 

Whether  the  orthodoxy  of  the  Indians  is  more 
than  a crust  of  superstition  I do  not  profess  to  know, 
but  I have  the  conviction  that  a true  missionary 
priesthood  would  work  a vast  improvement  in  their 


308 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


condition,  and  would  produce  the  evidences  of  gen- 
uine belief  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  which 
is  demonstrated  by  the  practice  of  those  doctrines. 
They  have  had  Roman  Catholicism  for  four  hundred 
years,  and  another  form  of  worship  would  be  mean- 
ingless to  them ; but  what  they  need  is  the  vital  prin- 
ciples of  the  Catholic  worship,  and  not  the  abuses  of 
unfaithful  servants  of  the  Church. 

I had  heard  that  the  Indians  in  the  depths  of  their 
natures  preserved  the  old  traditions,  and  that  they 
still  secretly  worshipped  the  White  Spirit  of  the  Illi- 
mani. Several  persons  whom  I asked  replied  that 
they  knew  nothing  of  this  belief.  One  of  them,  a 
Peruvian  who  had  spent  much  time  among  the  Indi- 
ans, said  the  only  spirit  they  worshipped  was  the  spirit 
of  alcohol. 

Among  the  native  population  the  cholos  are  easily 
distinguished.  They  are  the  migratory  classes  who 
live  in  the  larger  towns  and  some  of  whom  work  in 
the  mines.  Many  of  them  are  freighters.  They  have 
charge  of  the  pack  trains  to  and  from  the  mines. 
They  have  a distinctive  dress,  — the  loose  cotton 
trouser,  widening  below  the  knee  and  with  a V-strip 
of  different  cloth  In  either  side.  They  are  a political 
power,  for,  while  they  take  little  part  in  the  elections, 
they  are  not  unready  to  share  in  a disturbance. 

The  aboriginal  native  yet  preserves  many  customs 
distinct  from  the  cholo.  He  wears  a cap,  or  gorro, 
which  was  worn  in  the  time  of  the  Incas,  and  he  con- 
tents himself  with  a blanket  instead  of  trousers  if  he 
cannot  afford  the  latter.  The  pure-blood  Indians  are 
the  best  for  the  freight  caravans  where  the  llamas  are 
employed,  for  they  can  manage  those  whimsical  beasts 


THE  CENTRAL  PLATEAU  309 


of  burden  as  no  one  else  can.  The  llama  feeds  as  it 
goes  along,  and  a born  manager  of  animals  is  needed 
to  handle  a tropa^  or  drove,  of  them,  and  keep  them 
moving  in  regular  order.  The  life  of  the  freighter  is 
a hard  one,  tramping  all  day  and  at  night  sleeping  in 
the  corral  with  the  beasts. 

The  Indian  woman  in  Bolivia  occupies  a plane  on 
an  equality  with  the  man.  She  has  no  lord  and  master, 
as  has  the  American  Indian  woman  in  the  noble  red 
man  of  the  West.  She  works,  but  he  also  must  work. 
She  accompanies  him  with  the  pack  trains,  all  the 
while  that  she  is  trudging  along  twirling  her  spools 
and  winding  the  wool  into  yarn.  It  is  rare  to  see  an 
Indian  woman  without  her  spools  unless  she  Is  weav- 
ing at  the  loom.  Walking  and  talking,  gossiping  and 
scolding,  shouting  at  the  llamas,  tramping  over  the 
sharpest  mountain-pass  or  plunging  down  into  the 
gorges,  she  manages  to  keep  the  spool  always  twirling. 
It  is  a most  peculiar  process,  and  would  drive  a small 
boy  who  has  a notion  of  spinning  a top  on  the  end 
of  his  finger  wild  with  emulation,  though  he  hardly 
would  be  able  to  imitate  the  process. 

Marriage  bonds  among  these  Indians  are  not  loose 
ties.  In  all  the  settled  communities  where  the  little 
church  has  been  planted,  the  priest  sees  that  the  cere- 
mony is  performed,  for  it  means  a fee  to  him.  But 
when  the  man  wanders  away  for  work  and  is  gone  for 
years,  as  sometimes  happens,  it  is  no  interruption  to 
the  family  bond  that  on  his  return  a brood  of  children 
greet  him.  He  resumes  the  matrimonial  relation  and 
accepts  the  children  without  question. 

There  is  a prevalent  delusion  that  in  these  altitudes 
the  birth  rate  is  very  low,  and,  moreover,  that  many 


310 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


of  the  children  come  into  the  world  deaf  or  lose  the 
sense  of  hearing  soon  after  birth.  While  the  families 
are  not  so  large  as  in  the  tropics  or  lower  altitudes, 
they  are  numerous  enough,  and  I was  not  surprised 
to  be  told  that  the  report  about  deafness  and  the 
excessive  rate  of  infant  mortality  does  not  bear  the 
scrutiny  of  scientific  investigation. 

To  reach  La  Paz  from  Calamarca  it  is  necessary  to 
cross  several  quebradas,  or  wide  ravines.  Then  the 
gravelly  plain  spreads  out  and  stretches  to  the  preci- 
pice of  the  circular  basin  in  which  lies  the  city.  La 
Paz  spreads  along  the  inner  sides  of  a rocky  amphi- 
theatre, a panorama  of  red  roofs,  blended  blue  and 
white  buildings,  church  towers,  and  parks  of  willow 
and  eucalyptus  trees.  The  greenest  and  most  refresh- 
ing spot  in  the  mountain  bowl,  the  one  which  gladdens 
the  eye  and  rests  the  mind  while  filling  it  with  pleasing 
anticipations,  is  the  cemetery.  But  from  the  Heights 
no  one  guesses  that  this  oasis  is  a graveyard. 

A splendid  highway  leads  down  to  the  city,  which  is 
1,400  feet  below  the  level  of  the  great  plain.  At 
first  it  is  a straight  slanting  road  at  an  angle  of 
45  degrees.  Then  it  winds  and  becomes  very  crooked 
and  abrupt.  This  is  the  coachman’s  hour  of  triumph. 
He  sends  the  mules  at  a full  gallop,  and  if  a spill  does 
not  happen  the  plaza  is  reached  in  half  an  hour.  In 
passing,  there  is  a blurred  impression  of  steep  moun- 
tain sides  with  burros,  llamas,  and  men  and  women 
slowly  climbing  the  precipitous  paths.  This  vision 
becomes  more  substantial  when  the  level  is  reached 
and  it  is  possible  to  look  back  and  see  what  appear  to 
be  countless  processions  of  two-legged  and  four-legged 
ants  losing  themselves  on  the  ridges  and  steep  slopes.. 


View  of  the  Cathedral,  La  Paz 


THE  CENTRAL  PLATEAU 


311 


La  Paz  has  a plaza  and  an  alameda  and  two  or 
three  smaller  parks  which  are  not  uninviting.  The 
Chuquiyupu,  or  La  Paz,  River  winds  through  the 
town.  The  hillsides  on  which  the  buildings  are 
located  are  very  steep.  The  Plaza  Murillo  is  a sort 
of  terrace  or  level  between  the"  river  and  the  ridge. 
There  is  an  old  cathedral,  — one  of  the  few  in  South 
America  about  which  I know  nothing,  for  I did  not 
even  enter  it.  The  market-place  in  front  affords  the 
best  examples  of  native  life.  La  Paz,  notwithstanding 
it  is  the  commercial  centre  and  has  the  largest  Spanish 
and  foreign  element,  is  still  the  home  of  the  native 
race.  The  town  has  a population  of  60,000,  of  whom 
40,000  are  said  to  be  Aymaras,  10,000  cholos,  and  the 
remainder  of  European,  chiefly  Spanish,  origin.  The 
cholos  learn  to  speak  Spanish,  but  the  Aymaras  will 
not. 

Though  no  act  of  Congress  has  formally  made  ef- 
fective the  provision  of  the  Constitution  which  allows 
the  capital  to  be  shifted,  Sucre  no  longer  is  the  seat 
of  government.  The  President  has  his  residence  in 
La  Paz,  it  is  the  headquarters  of  the  army,  the  national 
custom-house  is  there,  and  the  Congress  meets  there. 
When  Sucre  was  the  actual  capital,  it  was  isolated  from 
the  rest  of  the  country.  The  foreign  ministers  lived 
at  La  Paz.  Some  of  them  during  their  term  of  office 
never  visited  Sucre,  but  contented  themselves  by  send- 
ing their  credentials  by  messenger  or  through  the 
mails. 

La  Paz  is  notable  for  the  international  character  of 
its  society.  At  a dinner  at  the  home  of  Minister 
Sorsby  I met  a Bavarian  mining  capitalist  and  his  wife, 
an  English  railway  manager  married  to  an  Argentine 


312 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


lady,  the  wife  of  a Greek  mining  engineer  who  had 
come  out  from  Constantinople  on  her  bridal  trip,  a 
French  financier,  a Spanish  merchant,  two  or  three 
Peruvian  gentlemen,  as  many  Americans,  and  a Bra- 
zilian. This  is  the  cosmopolitanism  of  a mining 
country  in  any  part  of  the  world.  Mr.  Mathieu,  the 
Chilean  Minister,  I had  known  In  Washington  when 
he  was  Secretary  of  the  Legation.  Mr.  Ignacio  Cal- 
deron, afterwards  Bolivian  Minister  to  the  United 
States,  at  the  time  of  my  visit  was  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury.  A pleasant  incident  was  a breakfast  with 
his  family  and  a talk  of  home  affairs,  for  his  wife  was 
a Baltimore  lady. 

A resting-place  after  weeks  of  wayfaring,  a vantage 
point  for  digesting  information  and  maturing  Impres- 
sions of  the  imprisoned  country  and  her  people,  a 
preparation  place  for  further  wayfaring,  — all  these 
La  Paz  was  for  me. 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE  MEXICO  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 

Depression  and  Revival  of  Mining  Industry  — Bolivia's  Tin  De- 
posits and  Their  Extension  — Oruroy^  Chorolque^  Potosi^  and 
La  Paz.  Districts  — Silver  Regions  — Potosi's  Output  through 
the  Centuries  — Pulacayo' s Record  — Mines  at  Great  Heights 
— Trend  of  the  Copper  Veins  — Corocoro^  a Lake  Superior 
Region  — Three  Gold  Districts  — Bismuth  and  Borax  — 
Bituminous  Coal  and  Petroleum  — Tropical  Agriculture  — 
Some  Rubber  Forests  Left — Coffee  for  Export — Coca  and 
Quinine  — Cotton. 

Bolivia,  in  the  character,  variety,  and  extent  of 
her  resources,  is  the  Mexico  of  South  America. 
Her  mines  yielded  the  precious  metals  for  hundreds 
of  years.  She  was  the  casket  of  gems  held  in  pawn 
by  the  Spanish  Crown.  She  poured  the  riches  of 
prodigal  mother  Nature  into  the  lap  of  the  mother 
country. 

Nor  was  the  largess  limited  to  the  colonial  epoch. 
The  prosperity  continued  until  world  conditions,  the 
fall  in  the  price  of  silver,  the  depression  in  the  baser 
metals,  bore  with  crushing  weight  on  an  industry 
which  after  centuries  of  ceaseless  exploitation  must 
show  exhaustion.  Lack  of  transportation  facilities 
discouraged  capital  from  meeting  the  stress  of  lowered 
prices  by  replacing  primitive  processes  with  modern 
methods.  Mining  was  nat  abandoned,  but  it  did  not 
advance.  Fresh  discoveries  did  not  follow  exhausted 
ore  beds. 


314 


PANAINIA  TO  PATAGONIA 


But  the  dawn  of  the  mining  revival  came.  It  was 
heralded  by  the  basis  of  all  modern  industrial  devel- 
opment,— railways.  The  country  will  have  means  of 
communication.  The  impulse  will  be  given  to  work- 
ing old  mines  and  developing  new  ones,  and  the  prog- 
ress for  the  next  quarter  of  a century  promises  to 
parallel  that  made  by  Mexico  during  the  last  twenty- 
five  years.  Much  of  it  will  be  due  to  the  policy 
initiated  by  General  Jose  M.  Pando,  and  followed  by 
his  successor.  President  Ismael  Montes.  The  under- 
standing of  the  prospect  will  best  be  had  after  knowl- 
edge of  what  constitutes  the  mineral  resources  of  the 
country.  From  83  to  85  per  cent  of  the  exports  are 
of  this  class. 

Bolivia  has  not  only  the  precious  metals.  She  also 
possesses  tin.  So  few  countries  in  the  world  produce 
tin,  and  the  article  maintains  so  steady  a price,  that  it 
is  surprising  enterprising  capital  has  not  made  greater 
efforts  to  exploit  the  Bolivian  deposits.  This  mineral 
is  found  all  through  the  eastern  fold  of  the  plain  lying 
between  the  Oriental  and  the  Occidental  Cordilleras. 
It  extends  from  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Titicaca  to  the 
southern  boundary  of  the  Republic.  The  richest  and 
most  productive  zone  of  this  region  is  between  south 
latitude  17°  and  19°,  but  the  tin  fields  cover  an  extent 
of  300  miles.  The  most  common  formation  is  of 
slate  and  gravel,  tin  being  found  in  the  igneous  rocks. 
The  best  known  districts  are  Milluni ; Huayna- 
Potosi,  where  the  mines  are  worked  more  than 
17,000  feet  above  sea-level ; Colquiri,  where  the  early 
Spaniards  found  tin  concentrates,  and  other  sections  of 
the  Province  of  Inquisivi;  Oruro;  parts  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  Podpo,  and  the  districts  of  Chayanta,  Potosi, 


MEXICO  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA  315 


Porco,  Tacna,  Chorolque,  Chocaya,  and  Cotagaita. 
The  three  latter  deposits  are  in  the  vicinity  of  Uyuni. 

The  productive  districts  are  known  as  La  Paz,  in 
the  north ; Oruro,  in  the  centre ; Chorolque,  in  the 
south  ; and  Potosi,  in  the  east.  Some  of  the  deposits 
are  superficial  and  thinly  spread  out  over  a great  ex- 
tent, while  others  have  been  followed  to  a depth  of 
1,000  feet  and  are  still  continued.  The  thickness  of 
the  veins  varies  from  a few  inches  up  to  lo  feet.  In 
some  of  the  mines  the  mineral  is  found  comparatively 
pure,  containing  40  or  50  per  cent  and  even  as  high  as 
65  per  cent  of  the  metal.  In  others  the  oxide  of  tin 
nearly  pure  is  encountered  in  the  form  of  crystal  grains 
and  nodules  of  a kind  of  sticky  iron  sand. 

In  the  northern  district  between  the  Illimani  and 
Sorata,  and  not  more  than  20  miles  from  La  Paz,  is  the 
beginning  of  the  tin  deposits  of  Huayna-Potosi.  The 
tin  is  found  in  combination  with  bismuth,  iron  pyrites, 
silver,  galena,  and  even  with  gold.  Milluni  is  a few 
miles  north  of  Huayna-Potosi.  It  has  a group  of 
parallel  lodes,  running  east,  north,  and  south,  which  are 
composed  of  quartz  impregnated  with  fine  earth,  more 
or  less  crystallized,  and  oxides  of  iron  pyrites.  There 
are  also  veins,  running  in  a westerly  direction,  which 
have  galena,  blends,  and  carbonates  of  iron.  The 
greater  part  of  the  workings  have  been  at  slight  depths 
where  the  mineral  is  easily  extracted.  Chocaltaga, 
which  is  within  12  miles  of  La  Paz,  is  operated  under 
similar  conditions.  It  forms  part  of  the  single  deposit 
of  Huayna-Potosi  and  Milluni.  The  ore  extracted 
from  this  group  is  exported  by  way  of  Lake  Titicaca 
and  Mollendo. 

The  Oruro  region  is  the  most  important,  as  appears 


316  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


from  the  comparisons  of  production.  The  output  of 
the  different  districts  for  a series  of  years  is  shown 
in  the  following  table,  in  terms  of  metric  quintals  of 
220.46  pounds : 


District 

Metric  quintals 

1897 

1898 

1899 

1900 

1901 

1902 

Oruro  . . . 

14,256 

17,215 

44,256 

82,269 

100,206 

96,981 

Chorolque 

8,680 

10,960 

20,615 

40,146 

68,998 

56,201 

Potosi  . . . 

8,361 

9,153 

19,826 

29,979 

39,175 

13,365 

La  Paz . . . 

6,198 

6,632 

8,097 

9,948 

10,780 

9,536 

Total  . . 

37,495 

43,960 

92,794 

162,342 

219,159 

176,083 

This  shows  that  the  production  rose  from  37,495 
metric  quintals,  in  1897,  to  176,083  in  1902.  The 
value  as  expressed  in  bolivianos  mounted  from  2,986,- 
000  to  8,783,000,  or  from  ^1,255,000  to  $3, 6 8 9,000. 
Since  then  the  output  has  grown  continuously.  The 
Potosi  district  has  increased  its  production  steadily,  but 
the  greatest  development  is  in  the  Oruro  zone.  The 
tin  is  exported  mainly  to  Liverpool,  though  a variable 
quantity  goes  to  Hamburg.  It  is  subject  to  a small 
export  duty,  the  rate  being  1.60  bolivianos  for  each 
46  kilograms  of  bar  tin  and  i boliviano  for  the  mineral 
in  the  spongy  form  known  as  barilla^  or  black  tin.  For 
the  bar  this  is  about  70  cents  per  100  pounds,  and  43 
cents  for  the  barilla.  The  latter  is  the  form  preferred 
for  export.  In  a recent  year  the  exports  through  the 
port  of  Antofagasta  were:  barillas.,  29,583,000  pounds, 
and  bars,  4,686,000  pounds. 


MEXICO  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA  317 


In  every  sense  the  tin-mining  industry  may  be  said 
to  be  one  of  the  future,  notwithstanding  that  it  has 
been  worked  for  years  chiefly  with  a view  to  securing 
the  pure  tin  and  without  much  regard  to  the  silver 
associated  with  the  deposits.  In  the  Oruro  region 
some  oxidized  ores  from  near  the  outcrops  are  operated 
for  tin,  but  the  bulk  of  the  mineral  comes  from  the 
sulphide  zone.  From  2 to  4 per  cent  of  tin  has  been 
obtained  by  concentration  and  lixiviation  tailings.  In 
Potosi  there  are  also  silver  amalgamation  tailings. 
The  past  development  of  the  industry  was  due  to  the 
building  of  the  railroad  from  Antofagasta  to  Oruro. 
This  provided  means  of  transportation  which  made  it 
profitable  to  work  the  tin  deposits  within  the  limited 
zone  where  lower  freights  could  be  assured.  The 
company  granted  a special  tariff  for  the  transport  of 
machinery,  fuel,  and  ores.  By  the  llama  or  other  pack 
animals  it  cost  about  $1.2^  per  ton  for  each  mile  of 
transportation  to  the  concentration  mills.  The  freight 
to  Europe  for  each  metric  ton  of  2,204  pounds  aver- 
aged  35  bolivianos^  or  ^14.90,  the  proportion  charged 
by  the  railroad  from  Oruro  to  Antofagasta  being  about 
4.89  bolivianos  per  metric  quintal  of  220  pounds. 
Other  transport  and  shipping  charges  were  about  3 
bolivianos  for  each  quintal. 

Of  the  world’s  total  tin  output,  say  100,000  tons, 
the  Bolivian  production  under  present  conditions  may 
be  placed  at  from  9,000  to  10,000  tons,  or  more  than 
equal  that  of  Cornwall  and  Australia  combined.  Since 
the  United  States  consumes  43  per  cent  of  the  entire 
production  of  tin,  the  importance  of  the  development 
of  the  deposits  in  Bolivia  and  of  the  transportation 
facilities  should  be  appreciated. 


318 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


The  richest  silver-producing  districts  of  Bolivia  are 
in  the  western  part  and  along  the  metalliferous  zones 
of  the  central  plateau  which  form  the  base  of  the  great 
plain.  Toward  the  north,  south,  and  east  the  ore 
deposits  crown  the  summits  of  the  Andine  sierras 
sloping  to  the  west.  The  region  is  divided  into  three 
sections  which  differ  fundamentally  in  their  geological 
composition.  The  Department  of  Potosi  is  the  most 
abundant  in  silver  ores.  In  it  are  situated  the  deposits 
of  Huanchaca,  Aullogas,  Colquechaca,  Porco,  Gua- 
dalupe, Chorolque,  Portugalete,  and  Lipez. 

The  famous,  though  not  fabulous,  silver  field  of 
Bolivia  was  the  Potosi.  It  is  said  that  there  may  be 
people  in  the  world  who  never  have  heard  of  Bolivia, 
but  there  can  be  no  one  to  whom  the  name  Potosi  is 
unknown.  “Were  I to  pay  thee,  Sancho,”  said  Don 
Quixote  to  his  squire,  when  the  servitor  was  bargaining 
to  inflict  lashes  on  himself  in  order  to  disenchant  the 
knight’s  Dulcinea,  “ in  proportion  to  the  magnitude 
of  the  service,  the  treasure  of  Venice  and  the  mines  of 
Potosi  would  be  too  small  a recompense.” 

The  discovery  was  made  by  an  Indian  herder,  named 
Gualca,  who  was  pasturing  his  drove  of  llamas  when 
he  came  upon  what  seemed  to  be  a white  metal  cord. 
It  was  silver.  The  cerro,  or  conical  hill,  of  Potosi  at 
the  apex  is  4,780  metres,  15,675  feet,  above  sea-level. 
The  configuration  is  volcanic.  The  veins  run  from 
north  to  south,  with  an  average  inclination  of  75 
degrees  crossing  to  the  east.  The  igneous  rock  which 
composes  the  interior  mass  of  the  cerro  is  impregnated 
in  all  directions  with  metallic  substances,  — lead,  tin, 
copper,  and  iron.  It  is  distinguished  principally  by 
the  abundance  of  silver  in  the  state  of  chlorides  and 


JNIEXICO  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA  319 


sulphides.  The  great  system  of  lagoons  or  canals  was 
finished  in  1621,  and  cost  ^2, 500,000,  or  what  would 
be  equivalent  to-day  to  $12,000,000.  Originally  there 
were  thirty-two  of  these  canals. 

A chain  of  authorities  from  Humboldt  to  Soetbeer 
have  estimated  the  silver  production  of  the  Potosi 
district  through  different  periods.  From  1545  to 
1800  these  mines  rendered  to  Spain  $163,000,000, 
which  was  the  tribute  that  the  Crown  exacted  of  one- 
fifth  of  the  production.  This  would  fix  the  taxed 
output  at  more  than  $800,000,000,  but  historians  are 
agreed  that  this  was  far  from  the  actual  amount.  In 
1 61 1 the  Spanish  authorities  tabulated  160,000  inhabit- 
ants in  this  district.  In  1905  the  population  was 
12,000.  This  measures  the  decadence  of  the  industry. 

The  carved  stone  head  which  marks  the  entrance 
to  the  old  mint,  the  one  established  by  the  Spaniards 
in  1585  and  kept  in  operation  for  more  than  two 
centuries,  now  grins  on  the  few  Indians  who  gather 
around  the  fountain  under  it  with  their  droves  of 
llamas.  The  grinning  head  seems  to  mock  their 
present  meagre  burdens  with  the  memories  of  the 
silver  caravans  of  the  past.  But  it  does  not  follow  that 
those  days  have  gone  forever.  The  Potosi  mines 
await  the  railway  to  replace  the  llama,  and  they  want 
also  modern  methods  to  restore  the  riches  that  defy 
the  old  processes  of  mining. 

The  most  productive  silver  mine  in  South  America 
is  the  Pulacayo.  It  is  located  in  the  Province  of 
Porco  in  the  Huanchaca  district,  and  is  operated  by 
the  Huanchaca  Company.  The  height  is  15,153  feet, 
and  the  entrance  is  through  a tunnel,  or  socavon, 
known  as  the  San  Leon.  The  claim  is  made  that 


320 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


this  mine  as  a silver  producer  is  the  second  in  the 
world,  the  first  being  the  Broken  Hill  of  Australia. 
From  1873  to  1901  the  production  was  4,520  tons  of 
silver,  and  the  value  of  the  output  was  estimated  at 
^116,000,000.  Formerly  the  ore  was  smelted  at 
Huanchaca,  Asiento,  and  Ubina,  but  now  much  of  it 
is  carried  down  to  Playa  Blanca,  near  Antofagasta. 
The  company  employs  3,200  laborers. 

In  the  Chorolque  district  is  said  to  be  the  highest 
mine  in  the  world,  18,696  feet  above  sea-level.  The 
altitude  of  the  colossal  conical  peak  is  21,156  feet. 
In  this  mountain  and  its  environment  are  veins  of 
silver,  tin,  bismuth,  lead,  copper,  bronze,  kaolin,  and 
wolfram.  It  is  in  the  region  of  eternal  snows,  of  never- 
ending  winds,  of  intense  cold,  and  of  rarefied  atmos- 
phere. It  is  operated  through  a tunnel  known  as 
the  San  Bartholomew  and  an  aerial  railway,  half  a mile 
long,  by  means  of  which  the  workingmen  descend  and 
return  to  outer  earth.  A drawback  to  the  exploitation 
of  this  region  is  the  lack  of  transportation  facilities, 
the  nearest  railroad  junction,  at  Uyuni,  being  95  miles. 
This  difficulty  will  be  overcome  when  the  railway  is 
built  from  Uyuni  toTupiza,  as  a short  spur  will  enable 
connection  to  be  made  with  Chorolque. 

The  mines  in  the  neighborhood  of  Oruro  were  dis- 
covered in  1575.  In  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  just  before  the  War  of  Independence,  in  three 
years  they  paid  to  the  Spanish  Crown  as  the  tax  of 
one-fifth,  $40,000,000,  which  would  mean  an  admitted 
production  of  $200,000,000.  In  the  district  of  Oruro 
are  said  to  be  nearly  5,000  abandoned  silver  mines. 
In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  city  a score  of  silver 
and  tin  mines  are  in  operation.  The  most  important 


MEXICO  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA  321 


of  these  is  the  Socavon  of  the  Virgin.  This  is  owned 
by  a Chilean  company.  The  smelting,  or  amalgama- 
tion, works  are  located  at  Machacamarca.  Since  1898 
the  process  employed  has  been  the  use  of  hyposul- 
phide  lixiviation.  The  San  Jose  mine  is  located  in 
a basin  two  miles  from  Oruro.  It  is  controlled  by  a 
Bolivian  company,  is  electrically  lighted,  and  has  a 
smelting  establishment  employing  the  Wetherill  sys- 
tem by  means  of  electro-magnetism.  During  several 
years  the  value  of  its  annual  output  amounted  to 
$ 1 ,000,000. 

Under  the  law  the  mines  are  obliged  to  deliver 
in  silver  bullion  the  fifth  part  of  the  exploitation  to 
the  national  mint  for  coinage,  and  the  price  is  fixed 
monthly  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  When 
the  drop  in  silver  continued,  Bolivia  lowered  its  export 
duty,  and  finally,  in  December,  1902,  silver  bullion  and 
minerals  were  freed  from  export  payment.  The  pres- 
ent Bolivian  silver  production,  which  is  8,000,000  to 
9,000,000  ounces  annually,  forms  a very  small  pro- 
portion of  the  world’s  total  output.  But  with  the 
building  of  railroads  and  the  assured  decrease  of 
transportation  charges,  it  is  a safe  prophecy  that  within 
a few  years  the  output  will  be  doubled,  if  not  quad- 
rupled. Here  Mexico  again  furnishes  the  illustra- 
tion. In  1877  Mexico’s  total  silver  production  was 
$25,000,000,  while  in  1902,  or  a quarter  of  a century 
later,  it  had  risen  to  $73,000,000,  and  this  increase  had 
been  brought  about  very  largely  through  the  facilities 
afforded  by  the  railroads,  causing  many  old  mines  to  be 
worked  profitably  and  new  ones  to  be  discovered. 

The  copper  deposits  follow  principally  the  course 
of  the  Andes  from  the  Atacama  desert  through  Lipez, 

21 


322  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


Porco,  Chayanta,  and  Calchas,  northeast  to  Corocoro. 
The  most  important  field  is  that  of  Corocoro  in  the 
Department  of  La  Paz,  13,000  to  13,200  feet  above 
sea-level.  It  is  the  Lake  Superior  region  of  Bolivia. 
The  form  in  which  the  copper  is  most  commonly  met 
with  is  in  small,  irregular,  spongy  grains  which  are 
called  barilla^  and  which  are  from  70  to  80  per  cent 
pure.  The  native  metal  varies  from  the  microscopic 
grains,  or  barilla^  to  great  masses  of  almost  pure  copper 
which  the  miners  call  charqui.  Other  metals  are  found 
in  combination.  An  analysis  made  in  Hamburg  gave 
the  following  results  : 


Copper 329 

Nickel 175 

Silver 9 

Zinc 117 

Other  substances 370 


1000 

At  times  the  mines  of  Corocoro  have  been  exploited 
chiefly  for  the  silver  deposits,  and  their  auriferous  char- 
acter also  has  been  an  element  in  their  value.  The 
claim  is  made  that  enough  gold  exists  in  the  copper  ore 
to  pay  the  freight  charges  to  Europe.  The  town  has 
15,000  inhabitants,  and  is  the  capital  of  the  Province 
of  Pacajes.  The  copper  layers  of  this  region  are 
known  in  an  extension  of  35  miles.  The  mines  are 
owned  by  Chilean,  French,  English,  German,  and 
Bolivian  capitalists,  to  whom  American  syndicates 
make  regular  offers. 

The  production  of  the  Corocoro  district,  in  spite  of 
discouraging  markets,  has  mounted  steadily.  In  1879 
it  was  20,240  metric  quintals,  but  in  1886  it  had 
dropped  to  10,000.  In  1900  it  was  25,636,  and  in 
1902,  42,014  quintals,  or  nearly  1,000,000  pounds. 


MEXICO  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA  323 


The  freight  charges  have  been  a heavy  drawback  to 
the  industry.  The  two  outlets  from  Corocoro  are 
through  Desaguadero  River  to  Nazacara  on  Lake 
Titicaca,  across  the  lake  to  Puno,  and  thence  by  the 
railroad  to  Mollendo  and  by  ship  to  Europe ; by  pack 
animals  to  Tacna,  and  thence  by  rail  to  Arica  and  by 
ship  to  Europe.  To  Mollendo  the  cost  of  freight 
and  insurance  was  1.87  bolivianos  (78  cents),  while  to 
Arica  it  was  2.24  bolivianos  (96  cents)  per  quintal. 
The  ocean  freight  to  Europe  from  either  point  was 
about  2.78  bolivianos  (^1.17).  The  building  of  the 
railroad  from  Corocoro  to  Tacna  will  afford  the  cop- 
per mines  cheaper  freights. 

The  government  exacts  a small  export  duty  on  the 
copper  ore.  The  industry  has  promising  possibilities 
in  other  regions,  in  addition  to  the  increased  devel- 
opment that  may  be  looked  for  in  the  Corocoro  dis- 
trict. The  best  paying  of  these  is  in  Lipez,  where  the 
white  native  copper  is  produced  and  the  ore  treated 
simply  by  concentration. 

There  are  three  gold  regions.  The  first  extends 
from  the  western  borders  of  the  Republic,  beginning 
in  the  basin  of  the  Inambari  River,  to  the  upper  Para- 
guay. It  includes  the  mountain  zone  of  Caupolican, 
Munecas,  Larecaja,  Cercado,  Yungas,  Inquisivi  in  the 
Department  of  La  Paz,  continues  through  the  Depart- 
ment of  Cochabamba,  and  is  prolonged  through  Santa 
Cruz.  There  are  some  famed  placer  washings  in  this 
district,  including  the  Suches  and  the  Tipuani.  The 
Suches  is  promising  both  for  quartz  and  for  placers. 
American  gold-miners  undertook  to  dive  for  the  gold 
washings  in  the  Tipuani,  and  they  are  said  to  have 
had  a fair  degree  of  success. 


324  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


The  Larecaja  placers  of  Tipuani  are  historic.  They 
have  been  worked  since  the  time  of  the  Incas.  The 
Portuguese  began  to  test  them  in  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  introduced  negro  laborers  from 
Brazil.  The  Villamil  family  from  1818  to  1867  ob- 
tained 151,000  ounces  of  gold  from  the  Larecaja 
properties  controlled  by  them.  The  placers  of  the 
Yani  River  are  also  given  considerable  importance. 
The  best-known  mine  in  this  section  is  the  Elsa. 
The  German  mining  engineer,  Stumpff,  estimated  the 
quartz  here  at  61,000,000  tons,  giving  36  cents  of 
gold  for  each  ton. 

The  city  of  La  Paz  lies  in  the  gold  gulch  of  the 
river  Chuquiyupu.  This  is  an  Aymara  name,  mean- 
ing inheritance  of  gold. 

The  second  gold-producing  region,  generally  called 
the  Chuquisaca,  commences  at  Atacama  and  Lipez  on 
the  border  of  Chile,  and  runs  through  the  southern 
section  of  the  district  of  Chayanta,  Sur  Chichas,  Men- 
dez or  Tarija,  and  Chuquisaca,  extending  to  the  plains 
of  Santa  Cruz.  The  best-known  placers  are  in  the 
bed  of  San  Juan  River,  known  as  the  Gold  River  of 
St.  John.  A large  amount  of  money  is  invested  in 
dredging  machinery  for  the  exploitation  of  this  river. 
In  the  Province  of  Chayanta  many  gold-mining  claims 
have  been  filed,  but  few  are  worked. 

The  third  auriferous  region,  and  the  one  believed  to 
be  the  richest,  is  in  the  far  north  of  the  Republic, 
along  the  limits  of  Peru,  and  following  the  water- 
courses of  the  Madre  de  Dios,  the  Acre,  and  the 
Purus  Rivers.  As  this  zone  is  occupied  entirely  by 
savages,  its  wealth  of  gold  has  not  been  exploited 
and  is  more  or  less  fabulous. 


MEXICO  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA  325 


The  gold  production  of  Bolivia  which  is  accounted 
for  is  very  small,  though  the  calculation  of  Humboldt 
and  others  is  that  from  1540  to  1750  it  amounted  to 
^420,000,000.  No  reliable  statistics  regarding  pres- 
ent production  are  obtainable,  for,  notwithstanding  the 
very  light  export  duty,  which  is  20  cents  per  ounce, 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  full  reports  are  not 
made  by  the  mines.  In  1901  the  output  of  which 
the  government  had  account  was  550  kilograms,  and 
in  1902,  580  kilograms. 

In  the  production  of  bismuth  Bolivia  claims  to  lead 
the  world.  The  King  of  Saxony  takes  the  product  in 
order  to  protect  his  own  monopoly.  The  geological 
formation  and  the  geographical  distribution  of  bismuth 
follow  the  same  direction  as  tin,  the  deposits  being  in 
the  transverse  folds  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes. 
It  is  found  mixed  with  the  veins  of  tin  and  silver,  and 
occasionally  it  is  encountered  in  the  native  state.  The 
tin  and  silver  beds  of  Chorolque  contain  bismuth. 
The  deposits  in  this  district  have  sulphurs  of  copper 
and  iron  which  are  easily  separated.  The  most  recent 
discoveries  have  been  in  the  Province  of  Inquisivi. 
The  production  in  1901  was  4,925  metric  quintals; 
in  1902,  3,450.  The  value  the  latter  year  was  about 
$350,000.  The  government  imposes  a very  slight 
export  duty. 

Among  the  mineral  substances  not  metallic,  which 
Bolivia  counts  as  a source  of  wealth,  is  borax.  The 
chief  deposits  are  situated  in  the  Province  of  Carangas, 
in  the  Department  of  Oruro.  The  principal  field  there 
is  the  Chilcaya,  which  has  an  extent  of  30,000  acres. 
The  Chilcaya  borax  is  said  to  be  of  the  best  quality, 
with  47  per  cent  water.  Its  exploitation  is  quite 


326 


PAN  AIN!  A TO  PATAGONIA 


primitive.  Chilcaya  is  120  miles  from  Arica,  which 
is  the  export  port  for  it. 

Geologically,  and  in  general  terms,  the  carboniferous 
zone  is  described  as  extending  south  toward  the  Pil- 
comayo.  Bituminous  coal  and  petroleum  exist,  but 
their  commercial  possibilities  have  not  been  established. 
Petroleum  is  found  in  the  peninsula  of  Copacabama 
and  other  points  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca, 
but  these  deposits  are  not  important.  Coal  veins  of 
uncertain  value  exist  in  the  northern  chains  of  the  Cor- 
dilleras, extending  from  the  Tinchi  River  to  the  border 
of  Peru.  In  the  Province  of  Caupolican  the  crude 
petroleum  is  used  by  the  local  population. 

Coal  and  petroleum  also  are  found  in  some  districts 
of  Tarija,  Cochabamba,  and  Santa  Cruz.  An  analysis 
was  made  in  1904  by  the  French  geologists,  under 
direction  of  the  government,  of  the  coal  beds  in  the 
Chimore  and  Apilla-pampa  districts.  It  showed  for 
the  Chimore  samples  volatile  substances,  24  per  cent; 
carbon,  47.5  per  cent;  ash,  28.5  per  cent.  In  the 
Apilla-pampa  specimens  an  appreciable  quantity  of 
sulphur  was  found.  Specimens  from  both  districts 
burned  well,  although  not  free  from  slate.  Preference 
was  given  the  Chimore  coal  as  containing  a greater 
quantity  of  coke  and  volatile  substances.  It  was 
declared  to  be  capable  of  utilization  in  industries  and 
particularly  in  the  production  of  gas.  Since  the  central 
plateau  and  the  most  thickly  populated  regions  are 
above  the  timber  line,  and  recourse  has  to  be  had  to 
the  llama  droppings  for  fuel,  if  further  exploitation  of 
the  Chimore  region  shows  the  presence  of  coal  in  large 
quantities,  it  will  be  a decided  economic  gain  to  the 
country.  But  the  indications  do  not  favor  it. 


MEXICO  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA  327 


As  regards  tropical  agriculture,  Bolivia  is  also  similar 
to  Mexico.  Rubber  was  a great  fount  of  prospective 
income  until  the  value  was  compounded  in  the  form 
of  a cash  indemnity  of  $10,000,000  from  Brazil,  when 
all  title  to  the  Acre  territory  was  yielded.  But  there 
are  other  regions  yet  left,  and  Bolivia  may  still  look 
upon  rubber  as  a source  of  national  wealth.  She 
retains  some  gum  forests  in  the  Madre  de  Dios  zone, 
which  has  its  outlet  through  Villa  Bella  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Beni  and  Mamore  Rivers,  and  which 
includes  the  Madidi,  Orton,  upper  and  lower  Beni, 
and  Manuripi  Rivers.  Another  region  is  compre- 
hended in  the  districts  of  Chalanna,  Songo,  Mapiri, 
Huanay,  Coroico,  and  a part  of  the  Province  of  Cau- 
polican.  This  district  has  its  outlet  through  Puerto 
Perez  on  Lake  Titicaca.  Its  rubber  product  already 
is  exploited  to  a fair  degree.  The  Germans  have  large 
interests  in  this  region. 

A district  which  is  practically  unexploited  is  in  the 
northern  and  eastern  part  of  the  Department  of  Santa 
Cruz,  formed  by  the  provinces  of  the  Velasco  and 
Magdalena,  and  bordering  on  the  Brazilian  State  of 
Matto  Grosso.  The  gum  forests  here  are  along  the 
rivers  Paraguay  and  Verde.  They  are  very  remote 
and  practically  unexploited,  but  in  time  undoubtedly 
they  will  be  opened  up.  In  the  region  of  Yuracares, 
in  the  Department  of  Cochabamba,  there  is  also  a spe- 
cies of  rubber  tree. 

Bolivia  has  a complete  code  of  legislation  governing 
the  production  and  export  of  rubber,  including  the 
imposts  to  be  paid.  The  gum  trees  are  national 
property,  and  neither  natives  nor  foreigners  have  the 
right  to  exploit  them  without  special  license,  preference 


328 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


being  given  the  one  whose  discovery  claim  is  filed  first. 
In  the  Territory  of  Colonias,  which  included  Acre, 
each  person  was  permitted  to  acquire  500  trees,  while 
companies  could  acquire  1,000. 

Of  Bolivian  agricultural  products  for  export,  coffee 
is  entitled  to  a chief  place.  Its  cultivation  is  carried 
on  chiefly  in  the  district  known  as  the  Yungas,  or  hot 
lands,  but  the  shipments  for  the  world’s  consumption 
cannot  be  large  in  competition  with  Brazil  and  other 
countries.  Coffee  is  exported  to  northern  Argentina 
and  to  Chile  with  profit.  The  European  shipments 
of  late  years  have  been  unimportant,  notwithstanding 
that  the  excellent  quality  of  the  exported  product  had 
given  it  a trade  standing.  With  the  coffee  lands  given 
railroad  transportation,  the  Yungas  product,  whose 
flavor  is  as  fine  as  that  of  Arabia,  may  regain  its 
foreign  market. 

It  is  a question  whether  coca  is  a blessing  or  a curse 
to  Bolivia.  This  is  the  plant  from  which  cocaine  is 
had,  and  from  the  similarity  in  name  is  often  confused 
with  cacao,  or  chocolate.  The  natives  have  chewed 
the  leaves  for  hundreds  of  years,  and  the  students  of 
racial  atavism  profess  to  see  in  its  qualities  stupefying 
effects  which  have  brutalized  the  existing  Indian  race. 
It  is,  however,  an  important  agricultural  industry. 
The  shrub  grows  from  two  to  eight  feet  high.  It  is 
cultivated  in  the  lower  plains  of  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  Andes  at  heights  varying  from  1,100  to  5,300  feet. 
Its  cultivation  is  the  leading  industry  of  the  Yungas 
district,  in  which  there  are  many  fine  plantations.  A 
plantation  lasts  from  thirty  to  forty  years  if  handled 
with  care  and  intelligence.  The  last  year  for  which 
figures  were  given,  the  coca  product  was  placed  at 


Gathering  Coca  Leaves  in  the  Yungas 


MEXICO  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA  329 


3.450.000  kilograms  (7,890,000  pounds),  valued  at 
11,250,000.  The  government  taxes  the  production, 
and  draws  considerable  revenue  therefrom,  since  the 
home  consumption  is  so  common.  The  exportation 
is  through  the  ports  of  Mollendo,  Arica,  and  Antofa- 
gasta, and  also  through  Argentina  by  way  of  Tupiza. 
France  is  the  chief  buyer.  The  exports  amount  to 
556,275  kilograms  on  an  average  each  twelvemonth, 
but  the  foreign  market  is  uncertain,  and  in  some  years 
the  quantity  sent  out  of  the  country  is  much  smaller. 

Sometimes  it  is  forgotten  that  when  the  British 
government  secured  the  cultivation  of  the  cinchona 
tree  in  Ceylon  and  India,  the  quinine  industry  was  not 
entirely  transplanted  from  Peru  and  Bolivia.  Annu- 
ally from  250,000  to  325,000  kilograms,  or  715,000 
pounds,  of  cinchona  bark  are  shipped  through  the 
ports  of  Mollendo  and  Arica.  In  the  eastern  Andine 
region  6,000,000  trees  are  said  to  be  under  culture, 
there  being  a large  number  of  the  groves  on  the  broken 
mountain-sides  at  altitudes  of  3,200  to  6,500  feet.  The 
Bolivian  product  gives  from  30  to  32  grammes  of 
sulphate  of  quinine  for  each  kilogram,  and,  it  is  claimed, 
is  superior  to  other  South  American  bark. 

Cotton-growing  without  question  has  a future  in  the 
Santa  Cruz  and  Chimore  region.  It  has  been  claimed 
that  this  district  can  produce  375,000,000  kilograms, — 
at  least,  this  was  the  pretension  of  some  enthusiastic 
railway  promoters.  They  estimated  that  one  hectare^ 
or  2-|  acres,  would  grow  1,600  plants,  each  of  which 
would  yield  two  pounds  of  ginned  cotton,  and  that 

50.000  families  could  be  colonized  in  this  region 
who  would  cultivate  each  six  months  15,000  pounds. 
While  experienced  cotton  - growers  smile  at  these 


330 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


fanciful  figures,  the  experts  who  have  studied  the  pos- 
sibilities of  the  soil  and  climate  in  this  region  credit 
it  with  undoubted  cotton  capabilities.  It  is  another 
illustration  of  Bolivia’s  varied  resources  and  of  her 
similarity  to  Mexico. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

BOLIVIAN  NATIONAL  POLICY 


Panama  Canal  as  Outlet  for  Mid-continent  Country  — Rail- 
ways for  Internal  Development  — Intercontinental  Backbone 
— Proposed  Network  of  Lines  — Use  Made  of  Brazilian  In- 
demnity — Chilean  Construction  from  Arica  — Human  Ma- 
terialfor  National  Development  — Census  of  i poo  — Aymard 
Race  — Wise  Governmental  Handling  of  Indian  Problems  — 
Immigration  Measures — Climatic  Variations — Political  Sta- 
bility — General  Panda’s  Labors  — Status  of  Foreigners  — 
Revenues  and  Trade  — Commercial  Significance  of  Treaty 
with  Chile  — Gold  Legislation  — A Canal  View. 

MID-CONTINENT  country  though  she  is,  Bo- 
livia realizes  the  value  to  her  of  the  Panama 
Canal.  For  a great  many  years  the  larger  part  of 
her  exports  must  be  ores  and  metals.  The  mineral 
regions  lie  chiefly  on  the  Pacific  side  of  the  Royal 
or  Oriental  Andes.  A portion  of  the  output  in  the 
southern  district  may  find  its  way  profitably  down 
through  Argentina,  but  the  overwhelming  bulk  of 
the  mineral  products  will  have  the  shortest  transit, 
and  therefore  the  cheapest  outlet  by  the  West  Coast, 
through  Antofagasta,  Arica,  and  Mollendo,  all  within 
the  waterway  radius.  This  also  will  be  the  route  for  the 
machinery  and  the  merchandise  imported. 

The  future  of  Bolivia  is  so  intensely  an  industrial 
one,  that  the  public  men  who  came  into  power  when 
General  Pando  became  President  keenly  appreciated 


332 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


that  they  must  secure  the  means  of  internal  devel- 
opment. This  could  be  fostered  only  by  building 
railways.  In  relation  to  the  general  subject  of  rail 
communication  and  transportation  the  Bolivian  plans 
fit  intimately  with  the  Intercontinental  or  Pan-American 
railroad  idea.  To  have  a complete  national  system  of 
railways  it  is  essential  that  there  shall  be  a through 
trunk  line  from  Lake  Titicaca  to  Argentina,  though  the 
branches  toward  the  Pacific  themselves  partake  of  the 
nature  of  main  lines.  In  the  political  aspect  the  mo- 
tive is  to  secure  such  domestic  progress  as  in  time  will 
enable  Bolivia  to  obtain  a seaport  of  her  own.  Yet 
a patriotic  policy  of  forethought  for  all  contingencies 
forbids  her  to  be  dependent  entirely  on  the  Pacific 
outlet.  Out  of  this  feeling  grew  not  only  the  deter- 
mination to  complete  the  connection  with  the  Argen- 
tine system,  but  also  the  purpose  of  combining  railroad 
and  water  transportation,  so  that  the  great  river  basins 
of  the  northeastern  region  shall  have  through  com- 
munication with  the  capital  and  with  the  interior  of 
the  country,  and  afford  an  Atlantic  outlet  by  means  of 
Villa  Bella  and  the  Amazon  River. 

In  this  manner  Bolivia  helps  to  maintain  her  inde- 
pendence and  to  free  herself  from  too  heavily  leaning 
on  her  Pacific  coast  neighbors.  Nevertheless,  geog- 
raphy decrees  that  her  earlier  stages  of  development 
for  a quarter  of  a century,  perhaps  for  half  a century, 
shall  be  to  obtain  the  fullest  advantage  of  the  ex- 
tension of  the  Panama  Canal  zone  along  the  West 
Coast. 

The  political,  geographical,  and  economic  conditions 
which,  in  the  view  of  President  Montes  and  the  pro- 
gressive public  men  of  Bolivia,  are  necessary  for  the 


BOLIVIAN  NATIONAL  POLICY  333 


development  of  the  nation,  involve  the  construction 
of  railway  lines  somewhat  as  follows : 

1.  Viacha  to  Oruro. 

2.  Uyuni  to  Tupiza  and  Quiaca. 

3.  Oruro  to  Cochabamba. 

4.  Cochabamba  to  the  Chimore  River. 

5.  Chimore  to  Santa  Cruz. 

6.  Uyuni  or  Sevaruyo  to  Potosi. 

7.  Potosi  to  Sucre. 

8.  Sucre  through  Padilla  and  Lagunillas  to  Santa  Cruz  and 
Yacuiba. 

9.  Tarija  to  junction  with  Argentine  lines. 

10.  La  Paz  to  head-waters  of  the  Beni  at  Puerto  Pando. 

11.  La  Paz  via  Corocoro  to  Tacna  and  Arica. 

12.  Oruro  to  Potosi. 

13.  Potosi  to  Tupiza. 

This  scheme  is  very  general,  yet  it  has  a solid  basis. 
When  visiting  Bolivia  in  the  Autumn  of  1903  on  an 
official  mission,  the  plans  were  explained  to  me,  and 
the  prospective  events  on  which  were  founded  the 
expectations  of  realizing  them.  Concurring  circum- 
stances followed  swiftly.  At  the  beginning  of  1905 
Bolivia  was  in  the  possession  of  cash  capital  of 
^10,000,000,  — the  indemnity  received  from  Brazil 
for  the  Acre  rubber  territory ; Chile,  for  patent  rea- 
sons of  national  policy,  by  a treaty  agreement  had 
obligated  herself  to  construct  the  line  from  Arica  to 
La  Paz,  and  also  to  advance  funds  to  Bolivia,  as  a 
guaranty  for  further  railway  building ; the  Peruvian 
Corporation,  to  insure  its  share  of  future  traffic  to  the 
Pacific,  was  engaging  in  various  projects,  and  minor 
enterprises  were  advancing  under  the  encouragement 
given  by  the  government. 


334  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


A rough  calculation  of  the  cost  of  railway  building 
was  $20,000  per  mile  in  the  central  plateau,  $24,000 
in  the  valleys,  and  $32,000  in  the  mountain  regions. 
The  latter  estimate  was  too  low,  but  taking  the  topog- 
raphy of  the  country  in  its  entirety  and  making  a 
general  engineering  reconnaissance  of  the  proposed 
routes  with  a maximum  grade  of  3 per  cent,  it  may 
be  assumed  that  the  700  miles  of  railway  which  are 
reasonably  sure  to  be  constructed  can  be  built  for  an 
average  cost  of  $35,000  per  mile,  or  $25,000,000. 
Half  that  amount  of  capital  might  be  said  to  be  in 
the  control  of  the  Bolivian  government  at  the  begin- 
ning of  1906.  The  ultimate  extension  projected  in 
order  to  league  all  the  parts  of  the  country  together  is 
about  1,700  miles,  but  that  is  a matter  of  many  years. 

When  the  128  miles  of  the  Pan-American  system 
between  Viacha  and  Oruro  are  completed,  there  will 
remain  only  125  miles  from  Uyuni  to  Tupiza,  and 
then  the  through  links  will  exist  from  Lake  Titicaca 
to  Buenos  Ayres,  for  the  Argentine  government  will 
have  completed  the  prolongation  of  its  line  to  Tupiza, 
the  section  within  Bolivian  territory,  55  miles  in  length, 
being  constructed  and  operated  under  a special  treaty. 
Three-fourths  of  the  traffic  of  the  Southern  Railway 
from  Puno  to  Mollendo  is  furnished  by  Bolivia,  and 
it  is  important  for  the  Peruvian  Corporation,  which 
operates  that  railroad,  to  make  sure  that  its  Bolivian 
freight  shall  not  be  diverted.  The  traffic  by  way  of 
Lake  Titicaca  and  Mollendo  is  about  25,000  tons 
annually. 

The  network  of  railways  in  project  includes  the  sec- 
tion between  Uyuni  and  Tupiza,  and  the  line  from 
Uyuni  or  Sevaruyo  to  Potosi,  and  from  Oruro  to 


BOLIVIAN  NATIONAL  POLICY  335 


Cochabamba.  The  commerce  of  Cochabamba  is 
considerable,  yet  the  most  pressing  national  need 
is  to  furnish  the  Potosi  mines  with  transportation 
facilities.  After  the  convention  with  Chile  for  the 
construction  of  the  line  from  Arica  to  La  Paz  the 
American  engineers  who  were  making  the  reconnais- 
sance indicated  a preference  for  the  routes  from  Oruro 
to  Potosi  and  from  Potosi  to  Tupiza  as  the  comple- 
ment of  that  system.^ 

How  soon  the  territory  of  the  Yungas,  that  is,  the 
head-waters  of  the  Beni,  will  be  opened  up  may  be 
a matter  of  conjecture ; but  the  very  great  advantage 
resulting  to  the  Bolivian  government  from  having 
this  rich  tropical  territory  developed,  which  among 
other  things  would  help  to  provide  the  capital  with  fuel, 
insures  the  building  of  a railway  of  some  kind.  The 
success  attending  the  electric  road  from  the  Heights 
of  La  Paz  down  into  the  city  may  afford  some  test  of 
the  feasibility  of  using  the  waters  of  the  Inquisivi 
River  as  the  means  of  traction  to  Puerto  Pando,  for 
the  water-power  of  this  stream  is  almost  unlimited. 
Once  the  head-waters  of  the  Beni  are  reached,  the 
way  will  be  open  for  navigation  to  the  confluence  at 
Villa  Bella  of  the  Mamore  and  the  Madre  de  Dios, 
which  later  reach  the  Amazon.  When  the  Brazilian 
government  carries  out  the  long-postponed  plan  of 
building  a railway  around  the  Madeira  Falls,  Bolivia’s 
course  to  the  Atlantic  will  be  shortened. 

This  Amazon  outlet  is  likely  to  become  practicable 
long  before  the  route  by  way  of  the  Paraguay  and  the 
Plate  is  opened. 

1 Reconnaissance  Report  upon  the  Proposed  System  of  Bolivian  Railways, 
by  W.  L.  Sisson,  C.  E.  La  Paz,  1905. 


336  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


The  Antofagasta  and  Oruro  railway,  with  its  2^  feet 
gauge  for  the  whole  575  miles,  has  been  a very  profit- 
able enterprise,  and  indicates  the  prospective  profit  of 
other  railways.  The  government  guaranteed  6 per  cent 
annually  on  the  cost  of  the  Bolivian  section,  that  cost 
not  to  exceed  ^750,000,  but  it  never  has  been  called 
on  to  meet  the  guaranty,  the  net  earnings  being  suf- 
ficient to  pay  all  fixed  charges  and  handsome  dividends. 
The  railway  between  Viacha  and  Oruro,  when  built, 
will  be  of  the  i metre  gauge  (3  feet,  3f  inches)  which 
is  the  gauge  of  the  line  between  La  Paz  and  Viacha. 
Ultimately  the  Oruro  and  Antofagasta  line  is  bound 
to  be  widened  in  conformity  with  it. 

There  may  be  halts  in  the  policy  of  the  Bolivian 
government.  Changes  may  occur.  Unexpected  ob- 
stacles may  postpone  the  fruition  of  all  these  national 
hopes.  Yet  during  the  period  when  the  Panama 
Canal  is  building  between  ^35,000,000  and  $40,000,- 
000  is  likely  to  be  employed  in  railroad  construction, 
and  this  will  mean  collateral  expenditures  in  other 
directions.  It  may  be  guessed  that  $50,000,000  will 
be  spent  in  internal  development  during  the  next 
twenty  or  twenty-five  years.  That  would  not  seem 
much  in  the  United  States,  but  in  a country  such 
as  Bolivia  it  is  an  enormous  sum. 

What  is  the  human  material  for  this  development, 
the  mineral  and  other  physical  resources  being  under- 
stood ? Taking  the  Acre  region  from  it,  and  aver- 
aging the  territory  which  will  be  given  Bolivia  in  the 
settlement  of  the  boundary  disputes  with  Peru  and 
Paraguay,  the  country  may  be  said  to  have  an  area 
of  400,000  square  miles.  A reasonably  trustworthy 
census  was  taken  in  September,  1900,  and  this  placed 


BOLIVIAN  NATIONAL  POLICY  337 

the  total  number  of  inhabitants  at  1,816,000.  Of 
these  the  classification  was  made : 


Aboriginal  Indian  race 1,028,000 

Mestizos,  or  mixed  blood 560,000 

Whites 215,000 


The  remainder  was  composed  of  negroes  and 
blended  nationalities. 

The  relative  number  of  inhabitants  in  the  different 
political  divisions  of  the  country  was  : 


Department  Inhabitants 

Chuquisaca  196,434 

El  Beni 25,680 

Oruro 86,081 

Tarija 67,887 

Cochabamba 326,163 

Santa  Cruz 171,592 

Potosi 325,615 

La  Paz 426,930 

Territory  of  Colonias 7,228 

1,633,610 

Not  enumerated 182,661 

Total 1,816,271 


A curious  circumstance  is  the  even  ratio  of  the  sexes. 
Of  the  1,633,610  enumerated  population,  the  males 
were  819,247  and  the  females  814,363.  The  Indian 
woman  fills  so  important  a function  in  the  industrial 
economy  of  the  country  that  her  numerical  standing  is 
of  consequence. 

This  census  of  1900  showed  that  the  foreigners 
domiciled  in  Bolivia  were  few.  The  total  was  7,400, 
and  it  was  made  chiefly  of  Argentinos,  Peruvians, 
and  Chileans.  The  Europeans — Italians,  Spanish, 
Germans,  French,  Austrians,  and  English  — numbered 
1,500.  Substantially  it  might  be  said  the  Republic 

up  to  the  present  is  without  a foreign  population  large 

22 


338 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


enough  to  influence  its  national  character  and  devel- 
opment. The  native  inhabitants  are  the  economic 
element  of  growth. 

The  whites  are  of  Spanish  origin.  The  cholos  are 
more  Indian  than  Spanish,  but  they  have  shown  con- 
siderable capacity  for  civilization  and  progress.  The 
Indians  are  very  largely  the  Aymara  race.  Possibly 
one-fourth  may  be  of  Quichua  stock,  but  certainly  not 
more.  Included  in  this  aboriginal  people  are  a large 
number  of  unclassified  Indian  tribes,  and  some  of 
these,  particularly  the  savages,  have  no  affiliation  with 
Aymaras  or  Quichuas.  The  number  of  savages  is 
placed  at  91,000,  though  that  is  hardly  more  than  an 
estimate.  They  are  found  in  the  river  regions  of  the 
East  and  Northeast.  The  Quichuas  are  in  the  South 
along  the  Argentine  border,  and  in  the  North  along 
Lake  Titicaca.  The  great  central  belt  is  Aymara,  and 
the  mixed  blood  there  is  Aymara  and  Spanish,  some- 
what more  virile  than  the  Spanish  Quichuas. 

The  Aymaras,  though  conquered  by  Spain  and 
recognizing  that  they  were  vanquished,  have  resisted 
absolutely  the  imposition  of  more  than  the  thin  layer 
of  Caucasian  civilization  upon  them.  They  are  said 
to  have  aspirations  for  independence,  but  the  uprisings 
which  have  taken  place  never  have  been  general  and 
usually  have  been  due  to  local  causes.  Their  most 
marked  characteristic  is  the  tenacity  with  which  they 
have  held  to  their  language.  It  would  seem  absurd 
to  say  that  a majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  La  Paz  do 
not  understand  Spanish,  because  their  intercourse  with 
the  Spanish-speaking  classes  must  be  assumed  to  give 
them  some  knowledge  of  that  language,  yet  some 
experiences  of  my  own  showed  that  it  was  useless 


BOLIVIAN  NATIONAL  POLICY  339 


to  depend  upon  Spanish.  In  the  interior  there  are 
a few  persons  among  the  Indians  who  understand 
the  language  of  the  government,  but  the  mass  of 
them  resolutely  refuse  to  know  it.  The  wife  of  a 
mining  engineer,  whose  camp  was  only  a few  miles 
away  from  La  Paz,  told  me  her  experience  with  the 
household  servants.  She  had  had  to  acquire  enough 
of  the  Aymara  tongue  to  give  the  ordinary  household 
orders,  and  her  children  had  picked  up  more,  so  that 
they  got  along  very  well.  But  no  persuasion  had  been 
sufficient  to  secure  the  consent  of  the  Aymaras  to  learn 
a little  Spanish.  In  other  mining  camps  there  was  the 
same  difficulty.  The  miners  always  master  a few  phrases 
of  Aymara  and  get  along  in  that  manner. 

It  is  not  unusual  to  hear  reports  of  uprisings,  or 
attempted  uprisings,  by  the  Indians.  I witnessed  one 
of  these  occurrences  at  Guaqui,  on  Lake  Titicaca. 
The  Indians  were  said  to  be  coming  down  a thousand 
strong.  But  when  the  local  authorities  exerted  them- 
selves, and  made  a show  of  a few  extra  soldiers,  what 
had  been  a noisy,  drunken  demonstration  quieted 
quickly.  However,  there  are  instances  in  which  the 
Indians  give  trouble,  but  in  most  cases  the  disturb- 
ances are  purely  local.  The  testimony  is  that  the 
Indian  population  is  to  be  feared  only  during  periods 
of  political  tumult,  when  the  government  is  divided 
into  factions,  or  when  one  leader  is  fighting  against 
another  leader,  and  the  bonds  of  authority  are  loos- 
ened. Then  there  is  danger.  The  Indians  make  a 
pretence  of  joining  one  faction  or  the  other,  but  it 
is  only  with  the  purpose  of  freeing  themselves  from 
restraint. 

Considering  that  the  European  race  is  relatively  so 
small  a part  of  the  population,  the  Bolivian  government 


340 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


has  handled  the  Indian  problem  very  well,  — much 
better  than  it  has  been  handled  in  the  United  States. 
Without  question,  the  army,  which  is  an  army  of  con- 
scription, has  been  of  great  benefit,  not  only  in  the 
military  control  of  the  natives,  but  in  the  training  it 
gives  the  Indians  and  the  cholos.  Military  service  is 
compulsory,  but  it  is  evaded  by  many  of  the  Aymaras, 
and  discriminating  state  policy  does  not  seek  to  enforce 
it  too  rigidly. 

In  spite  of  the  commonplace  and  stereotyped  talk 
about  the  worthlessness  of  the  aborigines  and  their  lazi- 
ness, all  my  observations  led  me  to  believe  that  the  Bo- 
livian Indians  are  an  appreciable  element  in  the  economy 
of  the  State,  and  are  capable  of  assisting  the  national 
development.  In  the/)««^z,  or  mountain  regions,  where 
most  of  them  are  found.  Nature  has  not  been  so  prodi- 
gal that  they  can  live  without  work.  They  do  labor  in 
the  mines,  in  tilling  the  fields,  in  tending  their  flocks, 
and  as  freighters.  Their  endurance  is  remarkable. 

But  this  native  population  is  not  enough  for  the 
development  of  the  mines  which  may  be  expected  dur- 
ing the  next  ten  or  twenty  years.  A mining  popula- 
tion will  have  to  be  brought  from  other  lands,  and  if 
not  from  neighboring  countries,  then  from  Europe, 
possibly  Galicia,  in  Spain,  and  the  northern  districts 
of  Italy.  The  white  race  endures  the  cold,  and  works 
in  the  rarefied  air  of  the  mines,  12,000  to  15,000  feet 
above  sea-level,  without  serious  impairment  of  its  vital 
powers.  I noted  this  from  individual  experiences  and 
from  what  mining  superintendents  told  me. 

The  Bolivian  government  has  a very  liberal  policy 
with  respect  to  immigration  and  the  public  lands. 
Hopes  are  entertained  that  a scheme  of  European 
colonization  on  an  extensive  scale  will  be  inaugurated 


BOLIVIAN  NATIONAL  POLICY  341 


within  a few  years.  This  must  come  with  the  devel- 
opment of  the  chaco,  or  tropical  prairie  and  forest 
region,  which  extends  from  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
Royal  Andes  to  the  Paraguay  River.  Some  of  the 
chaco  is  swamp  desert,  and  some  is  baked  soil,  cov- 
ered with  thorny  scrub ; but  much  of  it  is  fertile,  and 
the  climatic  conditions  are  not  unfavorable.  Several 
years  ago  the  government  granted  a railway  conces- 
sion, known  as  U A fricaine^  to  the  French  Bank  of 
Brussels,  with  the  special  purpose  of  securing  the 
peopling  of  this  region.  The  railway  enterprise  has 
not  advanced  rapidly.  In  time  it  may  be  carried  for- 
ward and  bring  the  chaco  district  into  railway  com- 
munication, not  only  with  Santa  Cruz,  which  is  the 
tropical  capital,  but  also  with  Sucre  and  the  whole 
network  of  railways.  Santa  Cruz  has  encouraging 
possibilities  for  the  European  immigrant. 

The  agricultural  region  In  the  Southeast,  of  which 
Tarija  is  the  capital,  is  now  partly  settled,  but  there 
is  room  for  a much  larger  number  of  tropical  farmers 
in  that  locality.  In  proportion  as  the  mining  popu- 
lation grows,  colonization  may  be  encouraged,  because 
there  will  be  the  inducement  to  the  agricultural  pro- 
duction which  supplying  the  mining  camps  will  de- 
mand. There  also  will  be  an  overflow  into  farming 
and  pastoral  industries. 

The  climate  of  Bolivia  Is  so  modified  by  the  con- 
figuration of  the  country  that  more  than  a general 
statement  is  not  possible.  Lying  within  the  torrid 
zone,  the  altitudes  are  to  be  taken  into  consideration 
as  modifying  influences.  Fully  8o  per  cent  of  the 
population  lives  at  altitudes  above  10,000  feet,  and 
not  less  than  60  per  cent  may  be  said  to  exist  above 
12,000  feet.  That  is  the  height  above  sea-level  of 


342 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


La  Paz,  which  is  the  largest  city,  and  of  the  central 
plateau.  The  mean  temperature  between  12,000  and 
13,000  feet  varies  in  different  years  from  57°  Fahren- 
heit to  59°.  Above  15,000  feet  it  is  43°.  The  sea- 
sons, wet  and  dry,  are  of  more  consequence  than  the 
temperature.  The  central  plain,  the  regions  of  the 
Cordilleras,  and  the  chaco,  are  all  in  their  climatic 
character  hospitable  to  natives  of  the  temperate  zone. 

There  are  three  distinct  climatic  belts  or  zones  in 
the  Bolivian  territory,  according  to  the  altitude  of  the 
respective  regions.  These  are  called  yungas,  or  hot 
valleys ; valles,  or  valleys ; and  punas,  or  cold  lands. 
Cabecera  de  valle,  or  head  of  valley,  is  a subdivision  of 
the  main  valley  division.  The  puna  brava  is  also  a 
subdivision  of  the  puna.  The  mean  temperature  and 
the  production  of  the  several  zones  are  as  follows  : ^ 


Zones 

Altitude 

Mean 

temper- 

ature 

Products 

Vegetation 

Animal  life 

Snow  region 

Metres 

5,000 

c. 

1.30 

Valerian  and  other 

The  condor  or 

Puna  Brava 

4,787 

6.4° 

Umbelliferae 

Crj'ptogamia 

Andean  eagle 
Llama,  vicuna,  al- 

Puna  . . . 

3,614 

12.1° 

Stipa  bromus,  baca- 

paca,  chinchilla 
Cattle,  sheep. 

Cabecera  de 

3,058 

15.2° 

ris,  bolax  glebaria, 
ocsalis  tuberosa, 
quenopodium 
Wheat,  vegetables, 

horses,  donkeys, 
bears 

Improved  spe- 

Valle  . . 
Valle  . . . 

2,500 

17.9° 

trees 

Fruit-bearing  trees. 

cies  of  the  same 
stock 

All  kinds  of  do- 

Yungas  . . 

1,688 

21.0° 

corn,  pulse,  etc. 
Thick  woods,  coffee. 

mestic  animals 
Puma,  tapir,  and 

cacao,  sugar-cane, 
coca,  rubber,  cin- 
chona bark,  and 
fruits  of  all  kinds 

birds  of  beauti- 
ful plumage 

^ Sinopsis  Estadictica y Geograjica  de  la  Republica  de  Bolivia,  La  Paz, 
1903. 


BOLIVIAN  NATIONAL  POLICY  343 


The  average  annual  rainfall  is  shown  in  the  following 
table; 


Latitude 

Temperature 

Rainfall 

c. 

mm. 

0 

38.00° 

836 

5 

35.34° 

818 

10 

32.68° 

800 

15 

30.02° 

782 

20 

27.56° 

764 

25 

24.90° 

746 

Bolivia  has  only  had  one  revolution  in  a quarter  of 
a century,  that  is,  since  the  Constitution  of  1880  was 
adopted.  The  revolution  took  place  in  1898,  when 
General  Jose  M.  Pando,  the  head  of  the  army,  super- 
seded President  Alonso.  It  was  not  a very  serious 
affair,  and  the  tranquillity  of  the  country  was  not  long 
disturbed.  The  foreign  interests  favored  the  change, 
for  the  one  issue  was  whether  the  populous  and  pro- 
gressive Department  of  La  Paz  should  be  held  back 
by  the  unprogressive  sections  of  the  country.  Since 
then  the  Pando  policy  has  prevailed,  and  has  been 
continued  by  President  Ismael  Montes,  who  was 
elected  as  the  candidate  of  the  Liberal  party  with 
many  evidences  of  popular  approval,  and  was  inau- 
gurated in  August,  1904.  Previous  to  that  time  he 
had  been  Secretary  of  War  in  Pando’s  cabinet.  He 
has  made  the  policy  of  railway  and  industrial  develop- 
ment the  principal  programme  of  his  administration. 
Senor  Villazon,  the  Vice-President,  was  formerly  Min- 
ister of  Foreign  Relations,  and  his  election  was  very 


344  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


satisfactory  to  the  foreign  interests.  Senor  Fernando 
Guachalla,  former  minister  to  Washington  and  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  Liberal  party,  is  looked  upon  as  a 
prospective  president.  He  has  had  wide  experience 
in  European  diplomacy  and  in  conducting  negotiations 
with  neighboring  South  American  Republics,  and  en- 
joys an  international  reputation.  His  success  at  some 
future  election  would  be  very  satisfactory  to  the  foreign 
interests. 

The  president  is  elected  by  popular  suffrage,  or,  in 
case  there  is  no  election  by  the  voters,  by  the  Con- 
gress. His  term  is  for  four  years.  A body  of  35,000 
electors  substantially  constitutes  the  political  power  of 
Bolivia.  The  vote  for  president  in  the  last  three  or 
four  elections  has  varied  little  from  these  figures. 
The  Congress  is  composed  of  16  senators  and  72 
deputies. 

The  country  is  divided  into  eight  political  divisions, 
called  departments.  These  are  La  Paz,  Oruro,  Beni, 
Santa  Cruz,  Potosi,  Chuquisaca,  Tarija,  and  Cocha- 
bamba. There  is  also  the  national  territory  of  Colo- 
nias,  which  is  of  lessened  importance  since  the  Acre 
district  that  was  part  of  it  has  been  yielded  to  Brazil. 
The  departments  are  subdivided  into  provinces,  and 
these  in  turn  into  cantons  or  counties.  The  adminis- 
tration is  highly  centralized.  Each  department  is 
governed  by  a prefect,  the  provinces  by  sub-prefects, 
and  the  cantons  by  officials  known  as  corregidores,  or 
magistrates.  There  are  also  alcaldes  in  the  municipal 
divisions  known  as  the  vice-cantons.  Municipal  coun- 
cils are  elective,  but  the  administrative  officials  are 
named  by  the  higher  authorities. 

The  school  system  I thought,  from  observations  in 


Portrait  of  Ismael  Montes,  President  of  Bolivia 


BOLIVIAN  NATIONAL  POLICY  345 


different  places,  a creditable  one.  The  country  has 
700  schools,  with  more  than  a thousand  teachers  and 
with  between  35,000  and  36,000  pupils.  It  has  15 
institutions  called  colleges,  the  pupils  of  which  number 
2,200.  There  is  also  the  national  university.  Presi- 
dent Montes  hopes  to  have  an  American  school 
established  as  one  of  the  measures  of  his  administra- 
tion, and  has  been  assured  by  Washington  officials 
of  the  cooperation  of  educators  in  the  United  States. 

Bolivia  now  observes  only  one  national  holiday. 
This  is  the  6th  of  August,  the  anniversary  of  independ- 
ence from  Spain.  The  Church  takes  many  days  for 
its  celebrations,  and  General  Pando,  when  he  was 
President,  thinking  that  they  formed  sufficient  rest 
and  recreation  for  the  population,  abrogated  various 
occasions  which  were  celebrated  as  national  holidays. 

The  Bolivian  legislation  with  regard  to  foreigners 
is  satisfactory.  They  enjoy  all  the  civil  rights  of 
natives,  and  are  not  subject  to  military  service.  They 
may  acquire  political  privileges  and  be  naturalized 
after  a -year’s  residence  in  the  country.  The  recogni- 
tion of  the  rights  of  non-citizens  with  reference  to 
mining  claims  is  quite  specific  in  the  revised  mining 
code.  Foreigners  get  along  very  well  in  Bolivia,  even 
in  the  remote  localities,  when  they  choose  to  adapt 
themselves  to  their  surroundings. 

There  is  no  prejudice  against  North  Americans, 
who,  in  fact,  are  preferred  to  Europeans.  For  a while 
Englishmen  were  not  welcome,  — it  was  after  one  of 
the  dictator  presidents  had  set  the  English  minister  on 
a donkey,  with  his  back  to  the  animal’s  ears,  and  sent 
him  out  of  the  country.  Great  Britain  did  not  feel 
that  she  could  afford  to  land  forces  and  cross  the 


346 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


Andes  in  order  to  secure  reparation  for  the  insult, 
but  for  many  years  thereafter  she  refrained  from 
sending  a minister.  Diplomatic  relations,  however, 
never  were  suspended,  because  the  interests  of  British 
citizens  were  looked  after  by  the  ministers  of  the 
United  States.  In  1903  Great  Britain  accredited 
Mr.  Beauclerc,  her  minister  to  Ecuador  and  Peru, 
to  Bolivia  also.  He  presented  his  credentials  and 
was  warmly  received.  The  aggregate  of  English  in- 
vestments in  Bolivian  mines  is  large.  In  1905  Ger- 
many accredited  a minister  to  Bolivia. 

The  national  revenues  are  derived  from  internal 
taxes  and  from  both  export  and  import  duties.  The 
chief  source  of  internal  revenue  is  alcohol,  which  is 
farmed  out  to  a private  company  as  in  Peru.  Under 
this  arrangement  the  government  does  much  better 
than  when  it  itself  undertook  to  collect  the  alcohol 
duties.  As  the  export  taxes  were  on  the  minerals 
and  on  rubber,  the  low  state  to  which  they  fell  during 
the  world-wide  depression  of  silver  and  copper  is  not 
difficult  to  understand.  The  controversy  with- Brazil 
cut  off  almost  completely  the  returns  from  the  rubber 
district.  Now  that  source  of  revenue  is  gone  for  good, 
yet  there  is  enough  rubber  territory  left  for  Bolivia  to 
expect  a fair  return  from  the  domestic  impost  and  the 
export  tax.  With  the  revival  of  the  mining  industry, 
the  country  may  expect  that  the  financial  condition 
will  improve,  because  a small  export  tax  on  the  various 
minerals  will  bring  in  a good  revenue.  The  weak- 
ness of  the  Bolivian  fiscal  resources,  however,  comes 
from  the  nation’s  isolated  position  without  a seaport. 
Under  its  treaties  with  Peru  and  Chile,  their  products, 
both  natural  and  manufactured,  were  admitted  free  of 


BOLIVIAN  NATIONAL  POLICY  347 


duty,  but  in  1905  Bolivia  gave  notice  of  her  intention 
to  terminate  the  commercial  arrangement  with  Peru, 
this  being  a result  of  the  convention  with  Chile  for 
railroad  construction. 

The  international  commercial  movement  shows  a 
balance  of  trade  in  favor  of  Bolivia.  For  a ten-year 
period,  ending  in  1905,  the  total  foreign  commerce 
ranged  from  34,000,000  to  54,000,000  bolivianos  an- 
nually. In  a recent  year  the  value  of  the  exports  was 
25,170,000  bolivianos^  and  of  the  imports  16,253,000 
bolivianos^  or,  on  the  computation  of  i boliviano  as 
equal  to  42.6  cents,  $10,571,000  and  $6,826,000, 
respectively.  Germany  and  Great  Britain  have  even 
shares  in  the  foreign  commerce,  but  Germany’s  advan- 
tage is  in  the  merchandise  she  exports  to  Bolivia. 
Sometimes  the  United  States  does  not  appear  in  sta- 
tistical abstracts  as  an  exporter,  but  this  is  because 
consular  invoices  are  made  out  for  the  Peruvian 
and  Chilean  ports  through  which  the  merchandise 
is  entered.  According  to  the  Bolivian  figures,  goods 
to  the  amount  of  $400,000  to  $500,000  are  imported 
annually  from  the  United  States,  but  it  is  doubtful 
if  this  is  anything  like  the  full  sum.  Railway  enter- 
prises carried  on  by  American  capitalists  would  mean 
largely  increased  importations  of  equipment,  mining 
machinery,  and  merchandise. 

The  treaty  between  Bolivia  and  Chile  which  was 
ratified  in  1905  and  put  into  effect,  has  a highly  im- 
portant commercial  and  industrial  significance.  By  its 
terms  Bolivia  formally  yielded  all  claim  to  the  littoral, 
or  coast  strip  of  territory,  which  was  taken  from  her 
by  Chile  as  a war  indemnity  in  1881.  The  principal 
feature  of  the  treaty  is  the  agreement  of  Chile  to 


348 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


construct  at  her  own  cost  a railway  from  the  port  of 
Arica  to  La  Paz,  the  Bolivian  section  to  be  transferred 
to  Bolivia  at  the  expiration  of  fifteen  years  from  the  date 
of  completion,  Chile  also  giving  Bolivia,  in  perpetuity, 
free  transit  through  Chile  and  the  towns  on  the  Pacific. 
Bolivia  is  authorized  to  constitute  customs  agencies  in 
the  ports  which  may  be  designated  for  her  commerce. 
Under  this  treaty  Chile  further  agreed  to  pay  to  Bo- 
livia a cash  consideration  of  ^300,000,  and  to  discharge 
various  liabilities  recognized  by  Bolivia  for  certain 
claims  both  Chilean  and  American. 

Another  provision  of  the  treaty  is  that  Chile  will 
pay  the  interest,  not  exceeding  5 per  cent,  which 
Bolivia  may  guarantee  on  the  capital  invested  in  the 
construction  of  railways  from  Uyuni  to  Potosi,  Oruro 
to  La  Paz,  and  via  Cochabamba  to  Santa  Cruz,  La 
Paz  to  the  region  of  the  Beni  and  Potosi  via  Sucre, 
and  Lagunillas  to  Santa  Cruz.  It  is  stipulated,  how- 
ever, that  Chile  shall  not  be  required  to  disburse  more 
than  ^100,000  a year,  that  the  aggregate  disburse- 
ments shall  not  exceed  ^1,600,000,  and  that  the 
undertaking  shall  be  void  at  the  end  of  thirty  years. 
The  terms  of  this  guaranty  are  somewhat  indefinite, 
and  their  vagueness  may  give  rise  to  controversy  in 
the  future.  The  present,  immediate,  and  prospective 
value  of  this  treaty  to  Bolivia  is  in  securing  a railway 
outlet  from  the  interior  to  the  Pacific  at  Arica,  and 
thus  being  assured  of  a commercial  artery  which  is 
bound  to  become  a great  highway  of  commerce.  Its 
relation  to  the  Panama  Canal  through  the  port  of 
Arica  I have  explained  in  previous  chapters. 

In  order  that  the  country’s  fiscal  growth  may  keep 
pace  with  its  industrial  and  political  development,  the 


BOLIVIAN  NATIONAL  POLICY  349 


government  has  sought  to  insure  financial  stability 
by  recognizing  the  gold  standard,  somewhat  after  the 
manner  of  Peru.  An  important  step  in  this  direction 
was  taken  when,  notwithstanding  the  silver  production 
and  the  coinage  of  the  white  metal  by  the  national 
mint,  a monetary  commission  was  created.  This  body 
matured  a plan  for  the  adoption  of  the  gold  standard. 
The  report  was  accepted  and  recommended  by  the 
government  to  Congress  at  the  Autumn  session  in 
1904,  and  was  enacted  into  law. 

The  financial  system  of  Bolivia,  as  fixed  by  this 
legislation,  may  be  said  to  be  an  approach  to  the  gold 
standard.  The  basis , of  the  currency  is  the  silver 
boliviano  of  25  grammes,  900  fine,  and  supposed  to 
equal  100  centavos,  or  cents.  In  United  States  terms 
the  boliviano  is  equal  to  42.6  cents.  In  a recent 
year  19,187,610  kilograms  of  silver  were  coined  into 
866,592  bolivianos.  The  law  of  November,  1904, 
fixed  the  value  of  Bolivian  silver  currency  in  terms 
of  the  English  pound  sterling.  It  declared  that  the 
pound  sterling,  or  English  sovereign,  should  thence- 
forth have  a cancelling  value  of  12  bolivianos,  53  cen- 
times; also  that  from  January  i,  1905,  50  per  cent  of 
the  customs  duties  should  be  paid  in  gold  coin  at  this 
rate,  or,  if  a whole  or  part  should  be  paid  in  silver, 
this  quota  should  be  subject  to  a surcharge  of  5 per 
cent.  Amounts  less  than  one  pound  sterling  may  be 
paid  in  silver  without  being  subject  to  the  surcharge. 
By  this  law  the  Executive  was  empowered  to  suspend, 
should  it  become  necessary,  the  mintage  of  silver  coin  ; 
the  exportation  of  silver  coin  was  declared  free,  and 
its  importation  into  the  Republic  was  prohibited  under 
the  penalty  of  confiscation. 


350  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


This  gold  approach  law  apparently  caused  no  in- 
convenience to  domestic  trade,  while  it  was  a great 
help  to  Bolivia’s  international  commerce  and  to  her 
credit  abroad. 

In  1905  the  outstanding  issues  of  the  four  banks 
which  had  the  authority  to  emit  notes  was  9,144,000 
bolivianos.  The  paid-up  capital  of  these  banks  was 
7,350,000  bolivianos.  German  and  Chilean  banks 
established  branches  in  Bolivia  in  1905.  By  a law 
passed  in  November,  1904,  an  issue  of  bonds  was 
made  to  the  amount  of  2,000,000  bolivianos^  to  cover 
government  obligations  to  the  banks.  They  bear  10 
per  cent  interest,  and  the  amortization,  or  refunding, 
is  to  be  at  the  rate  of  6 per  cent  each  year,  320,000 
bolivianos  being  included  in  the  national  budget  for 
interest  and  amortization. 

The  chapter  is  becoming  long.  The  conclusion 
shall  be  short.  The  treatment  of  the  topics  has 
been  paragraphic.  If  it  were  not  so,  further  chap- 
ters would  be  necessary  for  the  exposition  of  the 
guiding  motives  of  the  Bolivian  national  policy. 
Much  of  it  is  as  yet  only  national  aspiration.  But 
the  basis  is  industrial  and,  therefore,  sound.  Bolivia 
shares  with  her  West  Coast  neighbors  the  stimulating 
influence  of  the  Panama  Canal.  Its  economic  effect 
is  her  industrial  and  commercial  opportunity. 


CHAPTER  XXII 


NEW  BASIS  OF  THE  MONROE  DOCTRINE 

'John  ^incy  Adams'  Advice — Cannings  Trade  Statesmanship 
— Lack  of  Industrial  and  Commercial  Element  — Excess  of 
Benevolent  Impulse  — Forgotten  Chapters  of  the  Doctrine's 
History  — The  Ecuador  Episode  — President  Roosevelt's  In- 
terpretation — Diplomatic  Declarations  — Spectres  of  Terri- 
torial Absorption  — Change  Caused  by  Cuba  — Progress  of 
South  American  Countries  — European  Attitude  on  Economic 
Value  of  Latin  America  — German  and  English  Methods  — 
Proximity  of  Markets  to  United  States  Trade  Centres  — 
Conclusion. 

WHEN  John  Quincy  Adams  was  Secretary  of 
State,  he  issued  instructions  to  the  minister 
accredited  to  Colombia  after  that  country’s  recogni- 
tion as  an  independent  Republic.  They  related  to 
the  negotiation  of  a commercial  treaty  with  a single 
nation,  but  their  blunt  advice  might  have  been  given 
to  all  Spanish  America.  “ Let  Colombia,”  wrote  Sec- 
retary Adams,  “ look  to  commerce  and  navigation, 
and  not  to  empire,” 

I have  shown  in  the  preceding  chapters  how  the 
West  Coast  countries  are  looking  to  navigation,  and 
to  the  commerce  that  comes  from  the  railway  which 
was  undreamed  when  Secretary  Adams  issued  his  in- 
structions to  the  minister  to  Colombia.  They  have 
laid  the  bases  of  industrial  development  in  public 
works  and  private  enterprise.  They  have  prepared  the 
approach  to  financial  stability  which  is  demonstrated 


352 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


by  the  adoption  of  the  gold  standard  and  the  very 
marked  success  of  some  of  them  in  maintaining 
it.  They  have  given  a hint  of  the  possibility  of  re- 
funding national  obligations  and  of  the  profitable  em- 
ployment of  reproductive  savings.  They  have  sought 
to  induce  the  currents  of  immigration,  which  in  the 
case  of  South  America  never  will  rise  with  the  phe- 
nomenal flood  of  the  great  West,  but  which  may 
be  expected  to  grow  in  depth  and  movement.  They 
have  given  the  proofs  of  political  progress  in  the 
substitution  of  civilian  presidents,  bankers  and  sugar- 
planters,  for  the  old-time  military  dictators,  and  they 
are  working  out  their  own  destinies  after  their  own 
manner. 

But  what  of  the  United  States? 

The  United  States,  in  its  relations  with  South 
American  countries  during  the  eighty  years  since  the 
monitory  words  of  John  Quincy  Adams  were  written, 
has  not  dreamed  of  political  empire,  and,  unfortunately 
for  its  international  prestige,  has  not  looked  to  trade 
dominion.  The  lack  of  a commercial  and  industrial 
basis  for  the  Monroe  Doctrine  never  has  been  fully 
appreciated  by  the  nation  which  promulgated  it  and 
accepted  the  responsibility  for  maintaining  it,  though 
some  understanding  of  this  defect  has  been  felt  in  the 
countries  to  which  the  Doctrine  applies,  and  a keener 
realization  has  been  shown  in  Europe. 

Canning,  by  patient  and  adroit  manoeuvres,  was 
able  to  consolidate  the  mercantile  classes  as  a counter- 
irritant  to  the  prejudices  of  the  English  aristocracy, 
which  sympathized  with  the  Holy  Alliance  in  Its  war 
against  republican  institutions.  His  cold  and  calcu- 
lating intellect  perceived  that  the  commerce  which 


BASIS  OF  MONROE  DOCTRINE  353 


Spain  had  monopolized  in  her  colonies  was  drifting 
to  Great  Britain  as  a result  of  their  revolt,  and  he 
was  resolved  that  it  should  be  held.  The  threat  was 
made  to  France  that  the  independence  of  the  colonies 
would  be  recognized  in  case  Spain  should  seek  to 
restore  her  former  monopoly  system  and  should  at- 
tempt to  stop  the  intercourse  of  England  with  them. 
When  the  British  trade  instinct  began  to  manifest 
itself,  the  edifice  of  aristocratic  intrigue  crumbled. 
England  supported  the  United  States  in  the  recog- 
nition of  the  revolted  Spanish  colonies,  the  Holy 
Alliance  failed,  and  British  merchants  and  manufac- 
turers sought  the  channels  which  Canning’s  statesman- 
ship had  opened  for  them.  They  never  have  ceased  to 
follow  those  channels.  Much  later  came  Germany. 
But  the  United  States  always  has  been  indifferent. 

If  they  gave  the  subject  any  thought,  public  men 
failed  to  grasp  why  there  was  not  invariably  a warmer 
welcome  to  their  promulgations,  and  why  the  grate- 
ful South  Americans  did  not  buy  more  goods  in  the 
United  States.  Now,  sentiment  alone  does  not  bring 
trade.  The  Monroe  Doctrine,  beneficent  as  it  has 
been,  at  no  period  has  caused  the  sale  of  a dollar’s 
worth  of  merchandise  in  Southern  markets.  Nor  in 
their  most  benevolent  and  belligerent  moods,  when 
ready  to  fight  all  Europe  in  behalf  of  some  other 
Republic,  have  the  North  American  people  ever 
ordered  an  extra  ship’s  cargo  from  these  markets. 
Fraternal  sentiment  does  not  change  the  currents 
of  commerce,  but  commerce  sometimes  strengthens 
brotherly  relations.  And  in  this  manner  it  will 
strengthen  the  Monroe  principle  by  increasing  the 
material  interests  of  the  United  States,  which  in  the 


354  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


past  have  been  so  immaterial  in  comparison  with 
Europe.  When  they  see  and  come  in  contact  with 
the  concrete  Yankee  nation  as  represented  by  trade 
and  by  industrial  investments,  the  South  Americans 
will  understand  better  what  the  Monroe  Doctrine  is 
and  why  it  is.  The  Panama  Canal  extends  the  respon- 
sibility of  the  United  States.  It  enlarges  the  com- 
mercial opportunity  commensurate  with  the  increased 
responsibility,  and  the  rest  remains  for  the  enterprise 
and  the  initiative  of  the  individual  citizen. 

Since  these  commercial  and  industrial  elements  can- 
not be  entirely  divorced  from  political  subjects  and 
international  policies,  a brief  review  of  the  Monroe 
Doctrine  in  its  historic  and  political  aspect  may  be 
permitted. 

Has  national  polity  ever  been  more  bragged  about 
and  less  understood  than  this  Doctrine  ? It  was 
dogma,  creed  for  the  American  people,  but  with  the 
vaguest  ideas  of  what  it  meant.  Heretofore  one  funda- 
mental error  has  obtained  in  the  United  States, — 
an  error  which  explains  why  South  America  did  not 
always  welcome  our  paper  assertions  of  it.  In  the 
loose  discussion  and  affirmation  of  the  principle  we 
usually  assumed  that  it  was  purely  philanthropic,  and 
that  our  national  benevolence  was  to  be  exerted  solely 
for  the  good  of  the  weaker  nations  of  the  hemisphere, — 
an  altruistic,  even  quixotic,  mission  on  our  part.  Inter- 
nationally our  motives  are  benevolent,  but  the  Monroe 
Doctrine  was  asserted  in  the  first  place  for  the  welfare 
and  the  self-protection  of  the  United  States.  When 
John  Quincy  Adams  told  Russia  that  the  Western 
Hemisphere  was  not  to  be  used  territorially  for  the 
extension  of  monarchical  institutions,  he  made  the 


BASIS  OF  MONROE  DOCTRINE  355 


declaration  for  our  own  safety.  When  that  official 
pronouncement  was  applied  to  the  Spanish  colonies 
which  lately  had  secured  their  independence,  the  fear 
that  the  establishment  of  kingships  on  this  continent 
would  threaten  the  United  States  was  what  gave  the 
declaration  force  as  the  will  of  the  American  people. 
Protection  of  the  neighboring  infant  Republics  was 
secondary.  The  United  States  was  no  more  dis- 
interested than  was  Canning  in  giving  effect  to  the 
will  of  British  commercial  interests  rather  than  to  the 
prejudices  of  the  British  aristocracy  against  republican 
government. 

Nor  were  the  revolted  colonies  themselves  in  that 
formative  period  so  averse  to  European  alliances. 
Some  of  them  began  their  republican  careers  under  dic- 
tatorships, but  others  turned  to  Europe.  O’ Higgins, 
the  liberator  of  Chile,  would  have  had  another  vice- 
royalty with  a deputy  monarch  from  some  European 
Power.  La  Plata,  which  is  the  Argentine  Republic 
of  to-day,  sent  the  Rivadiva  mission  to  Europe  to 
borrow  some  member  of  a reigning  house.  It  was 
Canning’s  perception  that  the  effort  to  maintain  a 
balance  of  South  American  power  by  lending  Euro- 
pean princes  as  rulers  would  only  add  to  the  diffi- 
culties of  preserving  the  European  balance  that  caused 
the  Rivadiva  mission  to  be  discountenanced. 

I recall  this  forgotten  chapter  of  history  very  briefly 
in  order  to  show  that  in  their  infancy  not  all  the  South 
American  countries  were  averse  to  monarchical  insti- 
tutions, and  that  therefore  the  objection  by  the  United 
States  to  such  institutions  because  of  the  danger  to 
itself  was  the  more  marked.  The  Monroe  Doctrine  in 
the  beginning  was  enlightened  and  necessary  national 


356  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


selfishness,  with  incidental  benefit  to  the  nations  pro- 
tected. It  is  only  within  the  last  half-century,  since 
Maximilian  was  overthrown  in  Mexico,  that  the  Ameri- 
can people  have  learned  they  have  nothing  to  fear  from 
kingdoms  and  empires  in  the  New  World,  and  it  is 
during  this  period  that  the  Latin-American  Repub- 
lics have  reaped  the  substantial  and  most  disinterested 
results  of  the  original  assertion  of  the  policy  of  the 
United  States. 

Nor  has  aggressive  South  American  support  of  the 
Monroe  Doctrine  been  lacking.  It  was  during  the 
French  occupation  of  Mexico  that  the  Peruvian  For- 
eign Office  invited  an  interchange  of  views  and  an 
agreement  on  a general  policy  repudiating  European 
interference.  Argentina  and  monarchical  Brazil  did 
not  at  that  time  join  heartily  in  the  proposed  concert 
of  action,  and  Ecuador  actually  was  trying  to  consider 
herself  under  a French  protectorate.  A coterie  of 
individuals  there  had  proposed  an  arrangement  with 
Napoleon  III,  the  Dictator-President  of  Ecuador 
favored  it,  and  the  Emperor  had  assumed  that  the 
protectorate  was  a fact.  When  a proposition  was 
made  to  incorporate  Ecuadorian  territory  into  Colom- 
bia, the  French  minister  at  Bogota  formally  protested, 
under  directions  from  his  government,  that  this  could 
not  be  done,  because  France  had  paramount  interests 
of  sovereignty  in  Ecuador.  This  episode  is  one  of 
the  most  interesting  of  all  the  forgotten  chapters  in 
the  history  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 

In  Chile  in  1864,  at  the  period  of  Maximilian’s 
attempted  usurpation  of  Mexico,  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  passed  a resolution  asserting  the  historic 
Doctrine. 


BASIS  OF  MONROE  DOCTRINE  357 


The  Monroe  principle,  as  it  has  been  interpreted  by 
President  Roosevelt’s  administration,  has  two  phases. 
One  was  asserted  quietly  and  without  calling  out  spe- 
cial comment.  It  was  that  no  European  military  power 
should  be  established  within  striking  distance  of  the 
American  Continent.  This  assertion  would  apply  to 
the  Galapagos  Islands  and  to  naval  coaling-stations  in 
the  Caribbean. 

The  second  phase,  and  the  one  which  received 
more  attention,  was  the  President’s  declaration  that 
the  Doctrine  was  not  to  be  used  as  a shield  to  prevent 
the  collection  of  just  debts.  This  interpretation  some- 
times has  met  with  prompt  acceptance,  and  sometimes 
has  been  received  with  mild  interrogation.  The  direct 
statement  was  given  most  specific  endorsement  by  the 
distinguished  public  man  who  has  had  so  much  to  do 
with  shaping  the  policy  of  the  United  States  in  recent 
years.  This  was  in  the  address  of  Mr.  Elihu  Root, 
when,  as  a private  citizen,  he  proclaimed  the  rights  of 
the  United  States  as  a police  power  over  the  affairs  of 
all  other  Republics  on  the  American  Continent.^  He 
was  referring  especially  to  claims  and  international  ob- 
ligations, and  the  responsibility  of  the  United  States 
for  redressing  wrongs.  In  substance  this  was  not  dif- 
ferent from  Secretary  Olney’s  declaration  during  the 
administration  of  Mr.  Cleveland,  that  the  United  States 
is  practically  sovereign  on  this  continent,  and  its  fiat  is 
law  upon  the  subject  to  which  it  finds  its  interposition. 
At  that  time  Lord  Salisbury  could  find  no  support  in 
international  law  for  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  but  Great 
Britain  afterward,  for  reasons  affecting  her  policy  in 

^ Annual  dinner  of  the  New  England  Society  in  New  York,  November, 
1904. 


358  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


other  parts  of  the  world,  became  willing  to  accept  the 
Olney-Root  interpretation,  even  to  the  point  of  letting 
her  holders  of  Latin-American  bonds  look  to  the 
United  States  for  the  collection  of  their  debts,  though 
that  responsibility  never  has  been  accepted  by  the 
United  States,  and  never  should  be. 

Germany’s  acquiescence  in  the  Monroe  Doctrine 
has  not  been  so  complacent  or  so  sudden,  but  this 
acquiescence  may  be  accepted  as  a fact.  A statement 
was  attributed  to  Baron  von  Sternberg,  the  German 
Ambassador  in  Washington,  that  the  Kaiser  would 
not  accept  territory  within  the  Monroe  Doctrine’s 
jurisdiction  if  brought  to  him  on  a silver  platter.  An 
interview  with  Chancellor  von  Biilow,  published  in  a 
South  American  organ  of  German  interests,  was  even 
more  positive.^  “ We  know,”  the  Chancellor  was 
quoted  as  saying,  “ that  commercial  relations  are  ce- 
mented by  peace  and  confidence.  ...  We  have  ab- 
solutely no  political  aspiration  in  the  New  World,  but 
since  we  possess  extensive  industrial  interests  we  desire 
to  obtain  the  greatest  possible  participation  in  South 
American  commerce.” 

While  the  declarations  of*  diplomats  sometimes  may 
be  accepted  with  reservation,  the  conditions  in  South 
America  are  such  that  no  reason  exists  why  their  pro- 
nouncements with  reference  to  the  Monroe  Doctrine 
should  not  be  given  full  force.  Except  as  to  debts 
and  debt  collections,  at  most  the  question  is  an  aca- 
demic one  and  has  little  practical  bearing.  In  the 
matter  of  the  international  obligations,  while  the 
American  people  approve  President  Roosevelt’s  po- 
sition that  the  Doctrine  shall  not  be  construed  to 

^ Deutsche  La  Plata  Zeitung,  1903. 


BASIS  OF  MONROE  DOCTRINE  359 


enable  debtor  countries  to  avoid  paying  their  just 
obligations,  nevertheless  in  practice  probably  they 
would  expect  the  national  administration  to  ques- 
tion whether  it  is  necessary  for  a European  govern- 
ment to  occupy  any  portion  of  the  territory  of  a 
Latin-American  Republic  for  debt  collection. 

The  United  States  is  justified  in  fearing  that  the 
repression  shown  by  the  landing  of  troops  for  pur- 
poses of  debt  collection  might  assume  the  form  of 
indefinite  territorial  occupation  by  a Power  not  Ameri- 
can, and  that  would  be  acquisition.  The  actual  cir- 
cumstances would  have  to  be  considered ; but  official 
disclaimers  of  such  intention  might  not  be  sufficient. 
Nor  would  the  experience  in  the  reference  of  the 
Venezuela  claims  to  The  Hague  Court  be  likely  to 
convince  the  American  people  that  territorial  occupa- 
tion and  administration  could  be  permitted  pending 
the  settlement  of  the  disputed  questions. 

The  excessive  timidity  with  which  the  United  States 
Senate  approached  the  sane  and  sensible  provision 
for  a receivership  in  Santo  Domingo,  which  was  a 
sure  way  of  preventing  this  question  of  European 
occupancy  from  arising,  indicated  that  further  edu- 
cation was  necessary  before  this  perplexing  phase 
of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  could  be  assured  of  full 
support  along  the  lines  proposed  by  the  national 
administration.  But  speaking  in  terms  of  actuality 
rather  than  of  speculation,  the  perplexity  relates 
chiefly  to  the  West  Indies,  the  shores  of  the  Carib- 
bean, and  possibly  some  of  the  Central  American 
countries.  The  West  Coast  republics,  in  their  great 
industrial  strides  and  their  immense  advances  toward 
financial  and  political  equilibrium,  give  little  reason 


360  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


to  expect  that  the  question  will  arise  with  reference  to 
them. 

The  Venezuela  imbroglio  in  its  influence  on  South 
American  sentiment  has  to  be  understood  in  the  light 
of  the  agitation  which  had  been  going  on  for  the  ab- 
rogation of  the  Monroe  Doctrine.  This  movement 
had  supporters  in  the  United  States  as  well  as  in 
Europe.  The  argument  was,  that,  since  we  had  gone 
to  the  Philippines,  and  since  Europe  had  great 
interests  in  South  America,  we  no  longer  had  a 
right  to  say  to  the  European  Powers  that  they 
should  keep  hands  off.  Instead,  they  were  to  be 
told  to  carry  out  their  colonizing  aims,  which  only 
could  be  successful  by  territorial  acquisition.  Until 
the  United  States  undertakes  to  exercise  sovereignty 
on  the  European  Continent  or  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean, there  can  be  no  comparison.  And  until  the 
continental  Powers  adjust  their  balance  of  greedy  and 
mutually  distrustful  ambitions,  so  that  the  Balkan 
States  may  enjoy  the  privileges  of  civilized  govern- 
ment, their  mission  to  civilize  South  America  and 
establish  a balance  there  cannot  be  expected  to  receive 
serious  attention. 

And  let  not  the  notion  obtain  that  there  can  be  a 
geographical  limitation  of  the  responsibility  of  the 
United  States.  After  the  war  with  Spain,  when  our 
new  duties  pressed  heavily  on  us,  the  suggestion  was 
made  that  we  might  draw  the  line,  say  at  the  Equator, 
and  that  we  should  not  go  farther  afield.  It  was  an 
impracticable  suggestion,  and  does  not  need  discussion 
now.  Having  the  isthmian  canal  to  protect,  we  could 
not,  if  we  would,  limit  our  responsibilities  by  a line 
anywhere  through  South  America. 


BASIS  OF  MONROE  DOCTRINE  861 


Another  aspect  of  the  same  subject  may  be  con- 
sidered in  brief  space.  This  is  the  figment  of  terri- 
torial ambition  and  territorial  absorption  on  the  part 
of  the  United  States.  It  is  a phantom  to  the  well- 
informed  Northern  mind,  yet  to  the  South  Ameri- 
can imagination  it  is  a spectre.  In  the  Republic  of 
Washington  and  Lincoln  are  two  classes.  One  talks 
vaguely  on  the  Fourth  of  July,  and  other  occasions  of 
national  boasting  and  self-gratulation,  about  the  des- 
tiny of  the  rest  of  this  hemisphere  to  become  a terri- 
torial appanage  of  the  United  States.  The  majority 
of  these  talkers  have  the  vaguest  possible  notion  of 
the  geography  of  the  Southern  Continent,  of  the 
physical  conditions,  and  of  the  political  relations. 
If  they  knew  more,  they  would  talk  less.  At 
home  their  outgivings  receive  little  attention,  but  in 
South  America  they  are  given  undue  importance, 
and  often  distorted  into  supposed  policies  of  the 
government. 

The  other  class  not  only  entertains  no  idea  of 
territorial  absorption,  but  dreads  the  notion  of  the 
due  and  just  exercise  of  our  influence.  It  looks  on 
South  America  as  a nest  of  revolutions  with  which 
the  United  States  should  have  nothing  to  do,  ridi- 
cules the  possibilities  of  commerce,  and  professes  dis- 
belief in  the  capacity  for  progress. 

After  the  war  with  Spain,  in  Latin  America  the 
same  idea  was  entertained  of  the  good  faith  of  the 
United  States  that  was  held  in  Europe.  The  belief 
was  that  in  relation  to  Cuba  it  would  be  a case  not 
only  of  England  in  Egypt,  but  of  outright  annexation. 
This  class  of  prophets  have  not  fully  recovered  from 
the  staggering  effect  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  United 


362  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


States  from  Cuba.  It  made  a deeper  impression  in 
dissipating  their  jealousy  and  fear  of  the  giant  Repub- 
lic of  the  North  than  any  of  them  were  ready  to  admit. 
Yet  I have  heard  South  American  public  men  of  the 
reactionary  group,  who  would  have  been  loudest  in 
condemning  the  United  States  for  staying  in  Cuba, 
and  would  have  used  it  as  an  object  lesson  to  terrify 
their  people  with  the  shadow  of  the  North  American 
Colossus,  seriously  argue  that  we  should  have  re- 
mained, that  annexation  is  inevitable,  and  that  this 
should  have  taken  place  at  once  instead  of  being 
allowed  to  await  the  normal  evolutionary  process. 
My  friend  Don  X,  whom  1 had  known  in  Mexico, 
when  I met  him  in  Buenos  Ayres  pointed  out  to  me 
the  errors  of  my  own  contention,  that  in  getting  out 
of  Cuba  we  had  kept  the  national  faith  and  had  done 
our  duty.  “ Cuba,”  he  said,  “ belongs  to  you.  You 
should  have  taken  her.  We  would  have  used  it  as 
an  awful  example  against  you,*  but  we  would  have 
known  you  were  only  doing  what  you  had  a right 
to  do.” 

Thus  it  appeared  that  the  reactionary  South  Ameri- 
cans held  it  as  a grievance  against  the  United  States, 
that  we  did  not  give  them  an  example  of  overween- 
ing territorial  ambition.  But  the  proof  that  we  were 
not  greedy  permeated  all  classes ; helped  to  convince 
the  intelligent  population,  and  even  the  unintelligent 
mass,  that  there  could  be  such  a thing  as  a nation 
with  disinterested  purposes,  and  that  nation  the  Yankee 
Republic. 

The  position  of  the  United  States  with  reference 
to  absorption  was  set  forth  so  fully  in  the  letter  of 
Secretary  Hay  to  Minister  Leger  of  Haiti,  and  this 


BASIS  OF  MONROE  DOCTRINE  363 


position  was  approved  so  fully  by  the  American 
people,  that  no  further  declaration  is  required.^ 

That  the  attitude  of  the  United  States  is  better 
understood  and  better  appreciated  in  the  farthest 
countries  of  South  America  was  shown  during  the 
presidential  campaign  of  1904,  in  an  article  on  the 
views  of  the  two  candidates,  which  was  published  by 
an  influential  Chilean  paper.^ 

In  considering  the  economic  effect  of  the  Canal  on 
the  West  Coast  countries  it  has  not  been  my  thought 
to  discuss  in  detail  its  political  influence.  Moral  influ- 
ence is  the  better  term.  This  is  one  of  the  great  forces 
that  counts  in  their  industrial  development.  The 
United  States  is  on  the  Isthmus.  It  is  there  to  stay 

^ Department  of  State,  February  9,  1905. 

Dear  Mr.  Minister,  — In  answer  to  your  inquiry  made  this  mom- 
ing,  it  gives  me  pleasure  to  assure  you  that  the  government  of  the  United 
States  of  America  has  no  intention  of  annexing  either  Haiti  or  Santo 
Domingo,  and  no  desire  of  acquiring  possession  of  them,  either  by  force 
or  by  negotiations,  and  that,  even  if  the  citizens  of  either  of  these  republics 
should  solicit  incorporation  into  the  American  Union,  there  would  be  no 
inclination  on  the  part  of  the  national  government,  nor  in  the  sphere  of 
public  opinion,  to  agree  to  any  such  proposal.  Our  interests  are  in  har- 
mony with  our  sentiments  in  wishing  you  only  continued  peace,  pros- 
perity, and  independence. 

Very  sincerely  yours,  JOHN  HAY. 

Mr.  J.  N.  Leger,  &c. 

* “ In  reality,  it  is  to  the  interests  of  the  United  States  that  the  South 
American  Republics  should  look  up  to  them  as  their  best  friend,  so  that 
they  may  gradually  open  their  markets  to  the  enormous  products  of  North 
America,  and  that  the  overflow  capital  of  the  great  Republic  may  find 
good  investments,  so  that  they  may  hope  some  day  to  expel  entirely  Euro- 
pean capital.  All  violent  measures  which  may  bring  forth  the  distrust  of 
South  Americans  and  European  intervention  are  entirely  against  the  best 
interests  of  the  United  States,  and  would  be  considered  in  that  country 
a great  political  blunder  and  an  attempt  against  its  economic  develop- 
ment.”— El  Mercuric,  Santiago. 


364  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


for  all  time.  Its  presence,  rightly  understood,  gives  no 
support  to  those  who  dream  of  territorial  aggrandize- 
ment, or  to  the  other  class  who  see  spectres  and  have 
nightmares.  But  its  authority,  fully  established  in  the 
control  of  the  Canal  Zone,  does  give  assurance  of  in- 
creased stability  to  the  various  governments,  and  this 
stability  is  the  greatest  inducement  that  they  can  offer 
to  the  investment  of  foreign  capital.  The  Monroe 
Doctrine  became  automatic  from  the  ownership  of  the 
interoceanic  waterway  by  the  United  States  ; yet  the 
influence  on  the  Pacific  coast  countries  will  be  even 
more  beneficial  in  relation  to  their  internal  affairs  than 
with  reference  to  their  protection  from  possible  Euro- 
pean aggression.  What  is  needed  is  for  the  Fourth  of 
July  orator  who  ignorantly  hints  at  territorial  absorp- 
tion, either  to  inform  himself  on  the  subject  and  to  un- 
derstand how  the  Panama  Canal  becomes  the  greatest 
factor  in  enabling  the  Spanish-American  Republics  to 
work  out  their  own  destinies,  or  else  for  him  to  confine 
his  ambitious  dreams  to  Canada.  Let  Canada  be  his 
theme,  while  Latin  America  solves  her  own  problems. 

In  the  analysis  of  the  South  American  countries 
credit  should  be  given  them  for  what  they  have  ac- 
complished and  are  accomplishing  among  themselves. 
A very  competent  observer  in  an  exhaustive  volume  has 
noted  the  change  in  the  Spanish  character  in  the  South 
American  countries,  the  modifying  influence  of  environ- 
ment, and  the  growth  of  the  constructive  element.^ 

It  may  be  said  that  every  boundary  dispute  is  either 
settled  or  in  process  of  settlement.  The  inheritance 
of  these  controversies  from  the  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese colonial  epochs  was  a grievous  one,  because  in  the 
^ Charles  E.  Akers,  South  America,  i8§4~ig04,  London,  1904. 


BASIS  OF  MONROE  DOCTRINE  365 


vast  interior  regions  it  was  impossible  to  have  positive 
knowledge  of  the  limits.  The  doctrine  of  uti  possidetis 
was  wittily  translated  by  a Spanish  diplomat  as  mean- 
ing that  the  territorial  possession  of  the  discovering 
nation  extended  from  the  coast  as  far  as  the  eye  could 
not  see,  to  whatever  frontier  the  discoverer  could  im- 
agine. But  no  serious  difficulties  have  arisen  over  the 
application  of  this  principle.  The  respective  parties 
in  interest  are  settling  these  border  disputes  without 
going  to  war.  All  the  boundaries  will  be  delimited 
before  the  interoceanic  waterway  is  completed. 

Their  limits  fixed  beyond  dispute,  the  question  of 
the  permanent  relation  of  the  countries  to  one  another 
becomes  important.  South  America  for  South  Ameri- 
cans is  a wholesome  doctrine,  so  long  as  they  are  willing 
to  work  in  their  respective  spheres  for  the  advancement 
of  the  whole  continent.  As  some  of  their  writers  have 
pointed  out,  it  never  can  mean  a continental  alliance. 

While  much  is  made  at  times  of  the  distrust  of  the 
United  States,  a state  of  mind  which  is  disappearing, 
it  is  usually  overlooked  that  there  is  just  as  much  dis- 
trust of  one  another  among  themselves.  Though  it 
cannot  be  said  that  racial  antipathies  exist,  there  are 
national  jealousies.  The  little  Republics  fear  the 
big  ones.  When  the  talk  was  loudest  about  an  alli- 
ance of  Chile,  Argentina,  and  Brazil,  the  other  South 
American  commonwealths  refused  to  believe  that  such 
an  agreement  would  not  mean  their  own  destruction. 
At  least  one  of  them  caused  representations  to  be  made 
to  Washington,  asking  whether  it  could  not  be  taken 
under  a United  States  protectorate.  And  it  was  a far- 
away Atlantic  coast  country,  too.  The  smaller  and 
weaker  nations  feel  that,  like  the  fowl  in  Voltaire’s 


366  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


fable,  they  might  express  their  preference  as  to  how 
they  should  be  carved  up,  but  in  objecting  to  be 
carved  up  at  all  they  would  be  told  they  wandered 
from  the  question. 

There  is  really  only  one  acute  South  American 
question,  which  is  that  between  Chile  and  Peru  rela- 
tive to  Tacna-Arica,  and  since  it  does  not  enter  into 
the  economic  conditions  of  political  progress  I omit 
its  discussion  here. 

In  the  European  attitude  with  regard  to  the  com- 
mercial and  industrial  bases  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine 
has  been  much  that  is  both  grotesque  and  humorous. 
But  at  the  bottom  of  it  all  is  the  full  appreciation  of 
the  economic  value  of  Latin  America.  France  fre- 
quently chides  herself  for  her  failure  to  profit  more  by 
the  moral  influence  of  Latin  ideas  and  literature  on 
the  neo-Latin  countries.  “ We  know,”  wrote  one  au- 
thority,^ “ the  grand  scheme  of  economic  absorption 
of  the  Latin  Republics  by  the  imperialism  and  the 
industrialism  of  the  North.” 

The  imperialism  may  be  dismissed,  but  the  indus- 
trialism of  the  United  States,  when  it  once  ventures 
into  South  America  and  becomes  rooted,  is  worthy  of 
the  attention  which  European  economists  give  it. 

Though  Germany  and  Great  Britain  are  engaged  in 
a ceaseless  struggle  for  supremacy,  the  French  writer 
bewailed  the  Anglo-Teutonic  commercial  movement  as 
if  it  were  a joint  one.  He  proposed  Latin-American 
leagues ; the  Spanish  moral  and  economic  re-conquest 
of  the  colonial  empire  with  the  aid  of  France;  a kind 
of  family  pact,  Hispano-Americanism  as  opposed  to 
Pan-Americanism  or  Germanic-Anglicism.  On  their 

^ La  Vie  Latine,  Paris,  1904. 


BASIS  OF  MONROE  DOCTRINE  367 


side  the  Germans  complain  of  the  loss  of  German 
prestige  in  South  America,  and  some  of  their  writers 
advocate  a European  trade  combination  against  the 
Yankee  invasion  of  the  Southern  Continent,  just  as 
a similar  combination  is  proposed  in  Europe.  Each 
nation  in  the  international  trust  would  expect  to  get 
the  lion’s  share  of  the  benefit.  John  Bull  occasionally 
has  a tearful  period  of  brotherly  affection,  and  asks 
Uncle  Sam  to  poke  his  long  fingers  into  the  hot 
coals  where  the  English  walnut  has  been  dropped. 

With  regard  to  these  suggestions  it  may  be  said 
that  in  international  commerce  racial  affinity  counts 
for  as  little  as  do  sentimental  ties.  The  presence  of 
English,  German,  or  French  capitalists  and  immigrants 
in  any  foreign  country  naturally  draws  some  home 
trade,  but  this  has  little  influence  on  the  general  vol- 
ume. European  colonization  of  South  America  need 
not  mean  Europeanizing  it  commercially  any  more  than 
politically.  In  spite  of  the  large  German  colonies  in 
southern  Brazil,  Germany  lost  commerce  with  that 
nation,  while  she  gained  it  with  other  South  American 
countries.  It  is  often  remarked  that  much  of  Ger- 
many’s profitable  traffic  is  with  British  colonies. 

In  an  analysis  of  European  interests  in  South 
America  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  between  the 
securities  or  various  forms  of  national  debts  and  the 
actual  investments  in  trade  and  industry,  including 
railways  and  mines.  While  the  statisticians  vary 
widely  in  their  estimates,  it  is  reasonable  to  conclude, 
from  an  examination  of  the  leading  ones,  that  Great 
Britain  has  $2,000,000,000  in  South  American  invest- 
ments, of  which  $300,000,000  to  $350,000,000  may 
be  assigned  the  West  Coast ; Germany  has  from 


368  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


^475, 000,000  to  ^500,000,000,  with  possibly  $150,- 
000,000  in  the  Pacific  countries;  and  France,  with 
about  the  same  amount,  has  West  Coast  investments 
reaching  1 1 00,000,000,  her  Chilean  holdings  amount- 
ing to  1^42,000,000. 

The  relative  characteristics  of  the  two  principal 
European  competitors  in  South  America  are  very 
marked.  The  Germans  are  slow,  cautious,  persist- 
ent ; taking  few  pioneering  risks,  but  always  on  the 
ground,  filching  markets  and  industries  on  a thor- 
oughly scientific  system.  They  are  very  largely  in 
the  commission  trade  and  in  banking.  It  may  be  said 
without  injustice,  that,  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  actual  capital  risked,  Germany  has  contributed  the 
smallest  share  of  all  the  leading  European  nations  to 
South  American  development,  and  has  done  least  for 
industrial  projects. 

Great  Britain  on  her  part  has  gone  in  with  her  cap- 
ital, roystering  and  swaggering,  and  always  has  blun- 
dered boldly  and  courageously.  The  personnel  of 
her  enterprises  has  been  honeycombed  with  younger 
sons,  dependants  of  the  London  directors,  and  the 
whole  class  of  inefficient  parasites  which  clog  the  ad- 
ministration of  English  industrial  undertakings  abroad. 
Her  capitalists  have  built  railroads  in  the  mountains, 
where  the  tropical  torrents  require  enormous  resisting 
works,  just  as  though  they  were  constructing  lines 
across  the  plains  of  India  or  from  London  to  Liver- 
pool. The  stolid  and  dogged  British  investor  has 
paid  for  it  all,  and  has  kept  on  pouring  more  money 
into  these  enterprises.  So  it  came  that  he  floundered 
into  the  untold  wealth  of  the  Peruvian  guanos,  stum- 
bled into  the  nitrates  with  their  incalculable  riches, 


BASIS  OF  MONROE  DOCTRINE  369 


drifted  into  the  golden  stream  of  mining  lotteries, 
and  even  fell  upon  fortunate  and  undeserved  sur- 
prises in  the  way  of  profitable  railway  projects ; while 
the  expansion  of  his  banking  facilities,  sometimes  un- 
dertaken with  a recklessness  that  would  paralyze  con- 
servative bankers,  brought  him  returns  that  justified 
further  plunges  into  doubtful  financial  enterprises. 
As  a whole,  this  blundering,  or  even  stupid,  English 
policy  of  investments  has  paid  pretty  regular  divi- 
dends,— in  all  probability  greater  in  proportion  to  the 
capital  than  the  timid  and  over-cautious  German  in- 
vestor has  received.  When  the  United  States  fully 
appreciates  the  field  which  the  Panama  Canal  opens 
on  the  West  Coast  of  South  America,  her  captains 
of  industry  will  be  as  bold  as  the  Britishers,  but  not 
so  recklessly  stupid,  in  their  preliminary  plunges. 

These  observations  bring  the  subject  back  to  the 
point  that  in  international  rivalry  the  country  does 
best  that  meets  its  competitors  on  the  vantage  ground 
of  better  and  cheaper  goods,  rather  than  by  depend- 
ence on  racial  sympathy  or  fraternal  sentiment.  The 
great  point  for  the  United  States  is  the  very  marked 
advantage  in  which  it  is  placed  with  reference  to  the 
West  Coast  countries  of  South  America  by  the  Canal. 
The  trade  centres  of  the  Eastern  States  and  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley  will  front  on  the  Pacific,  as  they 
now  front  on  the  Atlantic  and  the  Caribbean.  Prox- 
imity of  markets  is  a clear  gain,  and  it  will  help  the 
commerce  of  the  United  States  to  adventure  abroad. 
In  that  sense,  for  a section  of  South  America  it  defi- 
nitely enlarges  the  commercial  basis  of  the  Monroe 
Doctrine. 

But  proximity  alone  is  not  enough.  The  United 

24 


370 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


States  enjoys  no  extensive  barter  with  the  Caribbean 
countries,  notwithstanding  their  nearness.  Brazil  and 
Argentina  are  as  close  to  Europe  as  to  the  United 
States.  The  need  of  expanding  the  home  market 
will  be  stronger  in  the  future,  and  when  that  is  felt 
more  keenly  the  north  and  south  trade-wave  will 
deepen  its  channel. 

Always  there  will  be  resourceful,  persistent  compe- 
tition. The  Pacific  coast  does  not  become  a mare 
clausum.  The  United  States  would  not  and  could 
not  make  it  a closed  sea.  The  foreign  commerce 
of  South  America  is  approximating  ^1,000,000,000. 
Of  this  amount  relatively  $600,000,000  is  exports 
and  $400,000,000  imports.  The  ratio  of  the  West 
Coast  to  the  entire  continent  is  about  25  per  cent; 
that  is,  on  the  basis  of  $1,000,000,000  it  will  have 
$250,000,000  foreign  commerce.  The  United  States 
is  in  this  trade  to  the  amount  of  $175,000,000.  In 
one  year  its  exports  were  $53,000,000  and  its  im- 
ports $140,000,000.  The  disproportionate  balance 
was  caused  largely  by  the  coffee  and  rubber  imports 
from  Brazil.  But  on  the  West  Coast  the  balance  is 
in  its  favor. 

I have  written  this  chapter  as  though  the  admoni- 
tion of  John  Quincy  Adams  had  been  addressed  to 
my  own  country  instead  of  to  another  commonwealth. 
But  it  again  may  be  said  that  empire  is  not  the  na- 
tional thought  of  the  United  States,  and  lust  of  ter- 
ritorial dominion  is  not  a serious  malady  with  the 
strongest  South  American  republics.  Commerce  and 
navigation  are  based  on  agricultural  and  industrial  de- 
velopment. The  interoceanic  waterway  renders  cer- 
tain the  permanent  influence  of  United  States  capital 


BASIS  OF  MONROE  DOCTRINE  371 


on  the  industrial  and  commercial  life  of  its  southern 
neighbors.  It  is  for  them  to  reap  the  larger  benefit 
in  the  increased  development  of  the  national  resources 
and  the  more  stable  political  institutions.  Some  of 
them  chafe  under  the  implication  that  the  Monroe 
Doctrine  will  be  necessary  in  the  future,  and  view  it 
as  a shadow  rather  than  a shield.  The  new  basis,  the 
economic  basis,  of  that  doctrine  which  is  provided  by 
the  Panama  Canal  furnishes  the  foundation  on  which 
its  evolution  may  begin,  so  that  they  may  get  out  from 
under  the  shadow  while  enjoying  the  sheltering  pro- 
tection of  the  shield. 

The  lessons  in  physical  and  commercial  geography 
embraced  in  these  chapters  have  shown  that  the  geo- 
graphical sphere  of  the  Canal  includes  the  Amazon 
basins,  the  Argentine  wheat  plains,  and  the  Andes 
treasure  box  of  mines  from  Panama  to  Patagonia. 
They  have  shown  how  railroad  progress  is  crowd- 
ing mule-trail  civilization,  how  the  arteries  of  trade 
are  lengthening,  how  fresh  commercial  currents  are 
developing,  how  the  new  industrial  life  is  unfold- 
ing, and  how  the  problems  in  the  political  condi- 
tions of  the  Western  Hemisphere  are  being  solved. 
They  give  promise  of  the  deferred  realization  of 
Henry  Clay’s  population  prophecy.  Finally,  they 
bid  the  citizen  of  the  United  States  to  look  out 
from  the  windows  of  his  own  self-contained  nation 
down  the  South  American  Canal  line,  and,  accept- 
ing the  responsibility  which  that  grand  enterprise  has 
brought,  to  share  in  the  opportunity  which  it  has 
created  for  contributing  to  the  civilization  that  comes 
through  the  spread  of  commerce  and  industry. 


» 


APPENDIX 

The  relation  of  the  Panama  Canal  to  ocean  transportation 
routes  is  best  exhibited  in  the  painstaking  tables  prepared  by 
the  Hydrographic  Office  of  the  United  States  Navy.  These 
show.,  in  terms  of  nautical  miles.,  the  comparative  distances., 
which  are  as  follows  : 


374 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


WEST  COASTS  OF  NORT 


San  Francisco 

Monterey 

Santa  Barbara 

1 

San  Diego 

San  Bias 

Guaymas 

Acapulco 

Salina  Cruz 

San  Jose 

Corinto 

Puntarenas 
(Costa  Rica) 

Panama 

Esmeraldas 

Guayaquil 

Paita 

Pacasmayo 

1 

0 

90 

0 

295 

220 

0 

451 

376 

164 

0 

1430 

1355 

1166 

843 

0 

1510 

1435 

1246 

923 

500 

0 

1836 

1805 

1616 

1493 

520 

954 

0 

2189 

2124 

1935 

1812 

780 

1251 

300 

0 

2446 

2371 

2182 

2059 

1074 

1508 

563 

291 

0 

2671 

2596 

2407 

2284 

1310 

1774 

799 

529 

238 

0 

2916 

2841 

2652 

2529 

1534 

1968 

1023 

765 

474 

284 

0 

3277 

3227 

3038 

2965 

1948 

2382 

1437 

1160 

888 

698 

490 

0 

3395 

3320 

3131 

3008 

2033 

2467 

1532 

1302 

1026 

830 

640 

475 

0 

3608 

3528 

3339 

3216 

2254 

2668 

1762 

1538 

1298 

1130 

947 

842 

409 

0 

3552 

3477 

3288 

3165 

2210 

2644 

1720 

1535 

1281 

1126 

948 

849 

416 

226 

0 

3709 

3634 

3445 

3322 

2374 

2808 

1889 

1615 

1453 

1302 

1125 

1031 

600 

415 

200 

0 

40 

39 

37 

36. 

26! 

31 

21 

19 

17 

16( 

14. 

13. 

9( 

7 

5( 

3 

APPENDIX 


375 


AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 


Pisco 

Islay 

(Mollendo) 

Arica 

Iquique 

1 Antofagasta 

Copiapo 

Coquimbo 

Valparaiso 

Talcahuano 
(Concepcion  R.) 

Lota 

(ConcepcionB.) 

1 Valdivia 

Punta  Arenas 
(Sandy  Pt.,oha.) 

4115 

4451 

4579 

4645 

4770 

4885 

5036 

5140 

5272 

5287 

5410 

6199 

San  Francisco 

4040 

4376 

4504 

4570 

4695 

4802 

4964 

5065 

5197 

5212 

5335  6124 

Monterey 

3851 

4187 

4315 

4381 

4506 

4620 

4745 

4870 

5002 

5017 

5142'5945 

Santa  Barbara 

3728 

4064 

4196 

4258 

4368 

4501 

4626 

4747 

4879 

4894 

5019 

5822 

San  Diego 

2784 

3126 

3254 

3321 

3444 

3582 

3713 

3724 

3993 

4008 

4139 

4976 

San  Bias 

3218 

3560 

3688 

3755 

3878 

4016 

4147 

4285 

4427 

4442 

4573 

5410 

Guaymas 

2303 

2647 

2775 

2842 

2973 

3113 

3253 

3398 

3554 

3569 

3708 

4580 

Acapulco 

2109 

2317 

2493 

2688 

2794 

2966 

3086 

3254 

3412 

3424 

3566 

4510 

Salina  Cruz 

1871 

2193 

2354 

2421 

2550 

2704 

2864 

3224 

3203 

3218 

33784295 

San  Jose 

1720 

2042 

2203 

2270 

2399 

2553 

2713 

2879 

3069 

3084 

3255 

4186 

Corinto 

1543 

1866 

2026 

2093 

2222 

2376 

2538 

2702 

2894 

2909 

3071 

4019 

Puntarenas 

1449 

1771 

1932 

1999 

2128 

2282 

2444 

2608 

2801 

2816 

2979 

3932 

Panama 

1018 

1340 

1501 

1568 

1697 

1851 

2013 

2177 

2370 

2385 

2548 

3501 

Esmeraldas 

833 

1155 

1316 

1383 

1512 

1666 

1828 

1992 

2185 

2200 

2363 

3316 

Guayaquil 

618 

940 

1101 

1168 

1297 

1451 

1613 

1777 

1970 

1985 

214813101 

Paita 

430 

754 

913 

990 

1109 

1267 

1442 

1608 

1808 

1823 

198712949 

Pacasmayo 

127 

452 

622 

689 

807 

%5 

1139 

1309 

1514 

1529 

1697 

2666 

Callao 

0 

335 

511 

578 

703 

861 

1033 

1204 

1413 

1428 

1597 

2550 

Pisco 

0 

139 

222 

428 

604 

790 

967 

1196 

1211 

1384 

2370 

Islay  (Mollendo) 

0 

110 

323 

538 

697 

881 

1102 

1129 

1301 

2294 

Arica 

0 

222 

437 

600 

784 

1005 

1032 

1204 

2185 

Iquique 

0 

229 

392 

576 

797 

824 

9% 

1981 

Antofagasta 

0 

179 

361 

582 

609 

781 

1705 

Copiapo 

0 

i98 

426 

450 

623 

1613 

Coquimbo 

0 

240 

266 

437 

1425 

Valparaiso 

0 

39 

222 

1210 

6 

207 

1194 

Lota  ( 

0 

1011 

Valdivia 

0 

(Sandy  Pt.,  cMe) 

376  PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


EAST  COASTS  OF  NORTH 


New  York 

Portland 

Boston 

Quebec 

Halifax 

Charlottetown, 
P.  E.  I. 

Philadelphia 

Baltimore 

Newport  News 

Charleston 

Savannah 

Bermuda 

Key  West 

0 

362 

0 

300 

111 

0 

1404 

1161 

1205 

0 

581 

343 

383 

861 

0 

828 

575 

627 

570 

273 

0 

229 

529 

477 

1558 

735 

982 

0 

404 

693 

641 

1739 

836 

1137 

355 

0 

281 

567 

515 

1613 

710 

1011 

229 

156 

0 

629 

901 

849 

1904 

1077 

1323 

594 

550 

424 

0 

699 

971 

919 

1978 

1147 

1393 

664 

620 

494 

88 

0 

676 

739 

6% 

1505 

758 
852 
729 

759 
633 
816 
830 
0 

1171 

1400 

1348 

2377 

1568 

1807 

1093 

1049 

923 

598 

569 

1090 

0 

APPENDIX 


377 


AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 


Habana  j 

Saint  Thomas 

Port  Castries 

Demerara 

Pernambuco 

Bahia 

Rio  de  Janeiro 

Montevideo 

Buenos  Ayres 

Punta  Arenas 
(Sandy  Point) 

1215 

1428 

1746 

2209 

3696 

4096 

4778 

5768 

5868 

6890 

New  York 

1444 

1562 

1853 

2289 

3701 

4101 

4783 

5773 

5873 

6895 

Portland 

1392 

1516 

1808 

2253 

3666 

4066 

4748 

5738 

5838 

6860 

Boston 

2421 

2340 

2574 

2935 

4171 

4571 

5253 

6243 

6343 

7365 

Quebec 

1612 

1613 

1873 

2279 

3575 

3975 

4657 

5647 

5747 

6769 

Halifax 

1851 

1790 

2028 

2437 

3662 

4062 

4744 

5734 

5834 

6856 

Charlottetown 

1137 

1437 

1762 

2225 

3746 

4146 

4828 

5818 

5918 

6940 

Philadelphia 

1093 

1414 

1743 

2204 

3758 

4158 

4840 

5830 

5930 

6952 

Baltimore 

967 

1287 

1617 

2086 

3622 

4003 

4780 

5750 

5853 

6826 

Newport  News 

642 

1194 

1554 

1984 

3631 

4031 

4713 

5703 

5803 

6825 

Charleston 

613 

1212 

1566 

2202 

3660 

4060 

4742 

5732 

5832 

6854 

Savannah 

1141 

853 

1134 

1724 

3037 

3437 

4119 

5109 

5209 

6231 

Bermuda 

90 

1040 

1360 

1797 

3814 

4214 

4896 

5886 

5986 

7008 

Key  West 

0 

1019 

1360 

1869 

3509 

3909 

4591 

5581 

6681 

6703 

Habana 

. . • . 

0 

346 

802 

2469 

2869 

3551 

4541 

4641 

5663 

Saint  Thomas 

• . » • 

0 

461 

2155 

2555 

3237 

4227 

4327 

5349 

Port  Castries 

. . . • 

• • • > 

• • • • 

0 

1788 

2188 

2870 

3860 

3960 

4986 

Demerara 

0 

400 

1100 

2065 

2183 

3340 

0 

745 

1717 

1835 

2992 

Bahia 

0 

1056 

1162 

2228 

0 

104 

1312 

6 

1386 

Buenos  Ayres 

0 

Punta  Arenas 

(Sandy  Point) 

378 


PANAMA  TO  PATAGONIA 


DISTANT  PORTS 


By  Cape  of  Good  Hope 

Ports 

pow- 

steam 

sels 

«= 

.2  2;  o 

rr  CO 

S 

■Sc/5  § 

CO 

1 

alone 
. mon-  1 
►on  1 

1 

alone 
. mon- 
on 

Full 
ered  ; 
ves 

S s o 

3 rt  2 
■<  ij  £ 

V) 

s 1 § 

<;  o £ 

CO 

Sail 
N.  E, 
so 

Sail 
S.  W 
so 

New  York  to  Bombay 

11250 

12670 

11820 

13310 

12460 

<(  « ft 

Colombo  . 

10950 

11730 

11730 

12370 

12260 

ti  u a 

Calcutta 

12180 

13710 

13140 

14390 

13780 

t<  U *( 

Singapore  . 

12150 

12850 

13120 

13490 

13760 

ti  tt  it 

Hongkong  . 

13590 

14750 

14560 

15430 

15200 

tt  if  it 

Shanghai  . 

14340 

15560 

15370 

16510 

16010 

if  a a 

Yokohama 

15020 

16450 

16120 

16900 

16760 

a a n 

Melbourne 

12670 

12840 

12840 

13480 

13480 

if  a it 

Sydney  . . 

13140 

13310 

13310 

13950 

13950 

it  U it 

Wellington 

13710 

14240 

14240 

14880 

14880 

By 

Suez  Canal 

By 

Panama 

Ports 

§ 

.2  2;  o 

— to 

^ • o 

g 

pow- 

steam 

sels 

pow- 

steam 

sels 

S E 5 

3 cS  O 
< £ 3 

CO 

3 1 O 

< ^ s 

CO 

Full 
ered  ; 
ves 

Full 
ered  ; 
ves 

New  York  to  Bombay  . . 

8370 

8120 

8120 

15130 

a ti  t< 

Colombo 

8610 

8610 

8610 

14230 

ti  a it 

Calcutta  . . 

10460 

9830 

9830 

14300 

a tt  ft 

Singapore  . 

10170 

10170 

10170 

12670 

ti  a it 

Hongkong  . 

12110 

11610 

11610 

11260 

u a t* 

Shanghai 

12920 

12410 

12360 

10720 

tt  ft  ft 

Yokohama  . 

13820 

13160 

13040 

9670 

it  it  it 

Melbourne  . 

15030 

15010 

12790 

10020 

tt  it  it 

Sydney  . . 

14480 

14460 

13320 

9710 

it  it  it 

Wellington  . 

15680 

15660 

14230 

8530 

By  Magel- 

By  Cape 

By 

LAN  Strait 

Horn 

Panama 

Ports 

pow- 

steam 

isels 

.£  EU 

rt  CO 

bo  w 

Vi 

pow- 

steam 

isels 

2 — S 

3 «J  > 

rt  55 

w ;» 

p o > 

^ 0) 

< 

Melbourne 

to  New  York  . . 

12880 

13120 

13760 

10020 

Sydney 

ft  it  ft 

12700 

13050 

13750 

9710 

Wellington 

ft  ft  it 

11500 

11850 

12550 

8530 

Valparaiso 

it  ft  it 

8460 

8680 

9400 

4640 

San  Francisco  “ “ “ 

13090 

14670 

15420 

5300 

Esquimau 

it  tt  tt 

13840 

15330 

16060 

6080 

Honol  ulu 

tt  tt  ft 

13200 

14170 

14970 

6690 

New  York  to  Valparaiso 

8315 

9130 

9420 

4640 

if  ft  (b 

San  Francisco . . . 

13090 

15350 

15660 

5300 

tt  tt  it 

Esquimau  . 

13920 

15980 

16290 

6080 

it  tt  tt 

Honolulu 

13200 

14650 

15480 

6690 

INDEX 


J 

1 


INDEX 


Aconcagua,  Mt. , 201 
Aconcagua  River  valley,  201 
Acorta,  Senor,  first  vice-president 
of  Peru,  1903,  169 
Acre  rubber  territory,  136,  327, 
3^8,333,336,344,346 
Adams,  John  Quincy,  his  advice  to 
Colombia,  351  ; and  the  Monroe 
Doctrine,  354 

Advertising,  Chilean,  202,  204. 
Agassiz,  2. 

Agriculture,  factor  in  growth  of 
population,  8 ; “ cultivation  in 
the  clouds,”  67,  68  ; develop- 
mentinPeru,  124-130,  134-136, 
146,  147,  154,  158-161  ; in 

Chile,  262-266  ; in  Bolivia,  307, 
327-330,  341,  342 
Aguacate,  or  alligator  pear,  28,  29 
Aguardiente.,  or  cane  rum,  27,  128 
Akers,  Charles  E. , 364 
Alameda  de  las  Delicias,  Santiago, 
204,  205 

Alausi,  Ecuador,  65 
Alcohol,  thirst  of  Indians  for,  27, 
121,  308  ; by-product  of  sugar, 
128  ; injurious  to  Indians,  156  ; 
source  of  revenue,  176,  346;  a 
possible  excuse  for  its  use,  295 

Alfaro, , former  president  of 

Ecuador,  71. 

Alligator  pear,  28,  29,  86 
Almirante  Barroso,  Brazilian  war- 
ship, 189 

Almuemo,  mid-day  breakfast,  27 
Alpaca  wools,  1 16 
Altiplanicie,  or  Great  Central 
Plateau,  279,  297 
Alzamora,  Dr.  Isaac,  former  vice- 
president  of  Peru,  96 
Amachuma,  Bolivia,  293 


Amazonian,  commerce  affected  by 
Canal,  6,  78 ; outlet  to  coast,  120, 

I37-I39*  142.  145.  147, 

179,  335;  railroad  extension  into 
Amazon  country,  140,-  Pichis 
road  opened,  143 

Ambato,  on  Guayaquil  and  Quito 
Railroad,  69 

Americans,  in  Canal  Zone,  53-56; 
as  railway  builders  in  Ecuador, 
65,  66;  builders  of  jetty  at  Pa- 
casmayo,  79  ; in  Peruvian  rail- 
way projects,  80,  106,  147,  159; 
in  silver  mines,  107,  131,  132  ; 
at  Arequipa,  117;  composing 
Inca  Company,  119;  irrigating 
Piura  district,  125  ; relations 
with  local  authorities,  175  ; in 
Iquique,  185;  project  a bank  in 
Valparaiso,  270  ; resident  at  La 
Paz,  312;  syndicates  interested 
in  Corocoro  mines,  322  ; miners 
at  Tipuani  placers,  323;  pro- 
jected American  school,  345  ; 
not  unwelcome  in  Bolivia,  345  ; 
advantages  from  Americans’  in- 
vestments, 347 

Amotope  district,  Peru,  oil-produc- 
ing, I 3 1 

Ancachs,  Department  of,  mineral 
wealth,  130,  133 

Ancon,  Mt.,  45 

Ancon,  Port  of,  46,  82,  83,  125 

Andes,  4,  6,  79,  81,  100,  118,  123, 
130,262,269,280,321.  Other- 
wise called  Cordilleras 

Angaraes  district,  Peru,  gold-pro- 
ducing, 132. 

Angostura  de  Paine,  narrowest  part 
of  central  valley,  263,  283 

Annexes  to  hotels,  3 1 


382 


INDEX 


Anona,  same  as  Cheremoya 
Antarctic  current,  see  Humboldt 
current 

Antofagasta,  distance  from  Panama, 
12  ; commerce,  15  ; bad  harbor, 
86;  sketch  of,  187;  copper  out- 
put, 228  ; silver  in  district,  230; 
town  seen  from  hills,  293 
Apilla-pampa  coal  district,  326 
Apurimac  River  valley,  southern 
Peru,  128 

Arana,  surveys  and  explorations  of, 
142 

Araucanian  Indian  stock,  251, 
252. 

Arequipa,  capital  of  southern  Peru, 
109,  no,  1 1 4-1 17;  district  is 
gold-producing,  132  ; sulphur- 
producing,  133 

Arequipa,  lost  in  Valparaiso  harbor, 
191 

Argentine,  5,  6,  8,  9 
Arica,  distance  from  Panama,  12  ; 
minerals  exported  from,  16  ; 
vicuna  rug  industry,  122  ; sketch 
of,  180-182;  export  port  for 
Chilcaya  borax,  326 
Army  life,  effect  on  native  con- 
scripts, 156  ; the  Chilean  roto  in 
the  army,  254 

Aspinwall,  William  H.,  statue  to, 
39 

Asta-Barragua,  Mr.  George,  241 
Athletic  sports  popular  in  Santiago, 
213 

Aullogas  silver  deposit,  318 
Avenida,  or  Avenue  Brazil,  Val- 
paraiso, 190 

A<vocat,  or  alligator  pear,  28 
Aymara  Indians  and  dialect,  154, 
252,  302,  304,  307,  311,  338- 
340  _ 

Aymaraes  district,  Peru,  gold-pro- 
ducing, 132 
Ayoayo,  Bolivia,  305 

Bacon,  Francis,  on  sea  voyages, 
59 

Baggage,  care  of,  3 1 


Bailey,  Professor,  director  of  Har- 
vard astronomical  observatory, 
117 

Balboa  crossed  Isthmus,  41 
Balmaceda,  Jose  Manuel,  former 
Chilean  president,  236,  237,  243, 
246 

Balsas,  or  house  rafts,  61,  121 
Banks  and  banking,  34,  72,  99, 
177,  178,  256,  270,  274-276, 
368 

Barandiaran,  surveys  and  explora- 
tions of,  142 

Beauclerc,  Mr.,  English  minister 
to  Bolivia,  346 
Beer,  26 

Beet-root  industry,  265 
Beggar  and  political  chiefs,  incident 
concerning,  165 

Bello,  Andre,  author  of  Chilean 
Civil  Code,  206 

Beni,  territory  at  head-waters  of, 
327,  335.  344.  348 
Bertrand,  Mr.  Alejandro,  civil  en- 
gineer, 215 

Birds,  on  the  coast,  79;  in  a tree- 
less country,  288,  292 
Birth  and  death  rates,  in  Lima,  100; 
in  Peru,  152,  157;  in  Chile, 
252,  256-258;  in  Bolivia,  310 
Bismuth  production  of  Bolivia,  325 
Black  Mountain  Peak,  on  Cen- 
tral Railway,  103 
Blaine,  Secretary,  concerned  in 
Galapagos  Islands  negotiations, 

71 

Boer  colonies  in  South  America, 
273 

Bogota,  pure  Spanish  spoken,  24 
Bolivia,  relation  to  Canal,  2,  3 ; 
population,  4;  commerce,  15, 
16,  86,  88  ; customs,  27  ; mar- 
ket for  Peruvian  goods,  126,128; 
railroad  building,  141,  187  ; na- 
tives, 156  ; shipping  points,  187, 
188  ; description,  278-350 
Boltnjiano,  United  States  and  Eng- 
lish equivalents,  316,  317,  323, 
347.  349 


INDEX 


383 


Boll  weevil,  Peruvian  cotton  free 
from,  126 

Borax  deposits,  132,  325 
Brandy,  Pisco,  85 
Bra2il,  (tropical)  coffee  trade,  8 ; 
(temperate)  cattle  and  wheat  in- 
dustries, 8 j boundary  disputes, 
136,  146  ; coffee  product,  161, 
328  5 controversy  over  Acre  rub- 
ber territory,  327,  333 
Bronze  in  Chorolque  district,  Bo- 
livia, 320 

Bryce,  Professor  James,  1 64 
Buenaventura,  59 

Bull-fight,  at  Lima,  95  ; abolished 
in  Chile,  213 

Bulnes,  General  Manuel,  former 
Chilean  president,  233 
Business-letter,  the  terse  English, 
23 

Caballitos,  or  grass  canoes,  79 
Cabildo  of  Quito,  resolution  adopted 
by,  66 

Cacao,  or  chocolate,  Ecuador's  pro- 
duction of,  63 

Caceres,  President,  his  plans  con- 
cerning central  highway,  143, 
170 

Cachipuscana,  Lake,  118 
Cailloma  district,  Peru,  silver-pro- 
ducing, 132 

Caja  de  Ahorros,  or  Savings  Bank, 
Santiago,  256 
Cajamarca,  80,  132 
Calamarca,  306 

Calancha,  Friar,  concerning  the 
South  Sea  and  the  Southern  Cross, 
57  _ _ 

Calca  district,  Peru,  iron  produc- 
tion, 133 

Calchas,  Bolivia,  copper  deposits, 
322 

Caldera,  5,  j88 

Calderon,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Ignacio, 
of  La  Paz,  312 

Calderon,  Senor  Manuel  Alvarez, 
Peruvian  minister  to  Washing- 
ton, 1903,  169 


Calderon,  Senor  Serapio,  second 
vice-president  of  Peru,  169 
Caledonian  cross-cut  channel  pro- 
jected, 42 
Caleta  Buena,  222 
Caliche,  nitrate  layer,  220 
Callao,  6,  12-14,  83,84 
Camache,  suburb  of  Iquique,  185 
Camana  district,  Peru,  copper-pro- 
ducing, 13Z  ; sulphur  beds,  133 
Campaign  humor,  instance  of,  240, 
241 

Campana,  J.  J.,  of  Iquique,  219 

Canal  Commission,  52 

Canal  Zone,  18,  19,  37-56,  364  ; 

see  Panama,  Isthmus  of 
Candamo,  Senor  Miguel,  late  presi- 
dent of  Peru,  166-172 
Cane  rum,  or  aguardiente,  27,  128 
Cangallo  district,  Peru,  sulphur 
beds,  133 

Canning,  George,  the  statesman, 
352,  355 

Canta  district,  Peru,  coal  deposits, 

133 

Cape  Pillar,  197 

Capelo,  Joaquin,  Peruvian  engineer 
' of  central  highway,  143 
Capopo  district,  copper  mines  in, 
228 

Carabaya,  Province  of,  gold  mines 
developed  by  Americans,  1 1 9, 
120,  132 

Caracas,  Bay  of,  60 
Caracoles  silver  mines,  230 
Caracollo,  Bolivia,  302 
Casapalca  smelting-works  on  Cen- 
tral Railway  of  Peru,  103 
Castilla,  Joaquin,  Peruvian  patriot, 
9+ 

Castrovirreyna  district,  Peru,  silver- 
producing,  132 
Cauca,  valley  of,  13,  59 
Caucho,  second  quality  crude  rub- 
ber, 134 

Caylloma  district,  Peru,  coal  de- 
posits, 133 

Centenarians  in  San  Juan  valley, 
281 


384 


INDEX 


' Central  Cordillera,  129,  137 
Central  highway,  route  from  the 
Amazon  to  the  Pacific,  142-146 
Central  Plateau,  or  Altiplanicie,  of 
Bolivia,  279,  297 

Central  Railway,  ioo-to5,  107, 
r49  j same  as  Oroya  Railway 
Central  valley  of  Chile,  262-264 
Cerro  de  Azul,  84,  125 
Cerro  de  Pasco,  district  and  mines, 
105-107,  131-133,  r4o,  177  ; 
railway,  ro6,  107,  140,  146,  159 
Chacabuco,  Hill  of,  head  of  central 
valley,  Chile,  262 
Chachani,  mountain  seen  from  Are- 
quipa,  ro9,  1 12 

Chaco,  or  tropical  prairie  and  forest 
region,  34t 

Chagres  River,  used  as  a means  of 
crossing  Isthmus,  41  ; advocated 
by  Champlain,  42,  43  ; one  of 
three  proposed  by  Lopez  de 
Guevara,  43  ; engineering  prob- 
lems presented  by,  44 
Chala,  Peru,  85 

Challapata,  near  Lake  Poopo,  298 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  Lima,  99, 

I 76 

Champlain,  concerning  Panama  and 
possibility  of  canal,  43 
Chanaral,  location  of  copper-smelt- 
ing works,  188 

Chancay  district,  Peru,  sulphurbeds, 

133 

Chanchamayo  valley,  cane-produc- 
ing area,  128  ; land-grants  to 
Peruvian  Corporation,  r4o  ; de- 
velopment of,  146,  160 
Charqui,  jerked  beef,  33 
Chauncey,  Henry,  statue  to,  39 
Chayanta,  tin  mines  in  district,  3 14  ; 
copper  deposits,  322  ; gold 
claims,  324 
Checcacupe,  Peru,  it9 
Cheremoya,  South  Americaa  fruit, 
28,  29 

Chicha,  native  drink,  26 
Chicla,  on  Central  Railway,  101 
Chilcaya  borax  field,  Bolivia,  325 


Chile,  relation  to  Canal,  2,  16  ; 
foreign  trade,  9,  16  ; saltpetre 
beds,  16,  217;  policy  toward 
Galapagos  Islands,  71  ; descrip- 
tion of,  180-277  j treaty  with 
Bolivia,  346 

Chilete  (Ancachs)  district,  Peru, 
lead  deposits,  133 
Chili,  valley  of  the  river,  109,  117 
Chiloe  Archipelago,  196,  273 
Chimborazo,  60 
Chimbote,  81 

Chimneys,  lack  of,  in  Santiago, 
209 

Chimore  coal  district,  326 
Chinchas,  or  guano  islands,  85 
Chinchona  tree,  329 
Chinese,  merchants  of  Callao,  84  ; 
population  of  Lima,  96,  97  5 
land-owners,  158 

Chira  valley,  projected  irrigation, 
124 

Chivalry  of  Chilean  men,  212 
Chocaltaga,  tin  deposit  of,  315 
Chocaya,  tin  district,  Bolivia,  315 
Chocolate  (cacao),  63 
Cholos,  105,  136,  154,  155,  157, 
285,  295,  p8,  311,  338,  340 
Chonta  district,  Peru,  mercury- 
cinnabar  production,  133 
Chorolque,  tin  mines  in  district, 
315  j silver  mines,  318,  320; 
bismuth  deposit,  325 
Chosica,  on  Central  Railway,  Peru, 
103 

Christ  of  the  Andes,  269 
Chuncho  Indians,  154 
Chuni,  potato  eaten  by  natives,  33 
Chup'e,  native  dish,  28,  292 
Chuquicamata,  copper  mines  in  the 
District  of,  228 

Chuquisaca  gold  region  of  Bolivia, 
3^4_ 

Chuquiyupu  River,  meaning  of 
name,  324 

Churches,  of  Guayaquil,  61  ; of 
Paita,  76  ; of  Lima,  91,  97,  98  } 
of  Arequipa,  115  ; of  Santiago, 
206 


INDEX 


385 


Clay,  Henry,  3,  371 
Climate,  along  West  Coast,  59  ; 
of  Guayaquil,  62  ; of  Lima, 
100  ; of  Arequipa,  109  ; of  San- 
tiago, 209,  213  j of  Chile,  273  j 
of  Oruro,  300  ; of  Bolivia,  341- 
3+3 

Clubs,  of  Callao,  84 ; of  Lima, 
96;  of  Iquique,  185  ; of  San- 
tiago, 211 

Coal,  in  Peru,  107,  131,  133;  in 
Chile,  194,  229;  consumption 
of,  in  nitrate  industry,  222  ; 
Bolivian  deposits,  326 
Coca,  plant  from  which  cocaine  is 
made,  156,  328,  329 
Cochabamba,  Bolivia,  335 
Cochrane,  Lord,  statue  to,  190 
Codecido,  Mr.  Emilio  Bello,  of 
Santiago,  211 

Coffee,  from  tropical  Brazil,  8 ; 
Peruvian  settlers  compete  with 
Brazil  in  coffee  culture,  161  ; 
Bolivian  trade  in,  328 
Cololo,  mountain  peaks  in  Peru, 

305 

Colombia,  relation  to  Canal,  2,  3, 

1 3 ; Colombian  control  of  Isth- 
mus, 46  j J.  Q.  Adams’s  advice, 

351 

Colon,  distance  from  New  York, 
New  Orleans,  Panama,  and  Liver- 
pool, II,  12  ; sketch  of,  37—40  ; 
Canal  workers  leaving,  54  j dis- 
tance from  foreigpi  ports,  63 
Colonias,  Territory  of,  Bolivia, 
328.  344 

Colonization,  in  Peru,  138,  160  j 
in  Chile,  272  ; in  Bolivia,  340 
Colquechaca  silver  deposits,  318 
Colquiri,  tin-mining  district,  314 
Columbus,  statue  to,  at  mouth  of 
Canal,  38  ; made  search  for  pas- 
sage through  Isthmus,  41 
Commercial  traveller’s  need  of 
Spanish,  23 

Campania  Nacional  de  Recaudacion, 
Peru,  176 

Concepcion,  third  largest  city  in 


Chile,  196  J coal  mines  in  dis- 
trict, 229 
Condor,  72 

Consequencia  silver  mines,  Chile, 
230 

Continental  Divide,  see  Cordillerac 
Coolies  as  plantation  laborers,  158 
Copacabama,  peninsula  of,  326 
Copiapo  district,  silver  mines,  229  ; 

seat  of  revolution,  233 
Copiapo  Railway,  188 
Copper,  in  Ecuador,  70  ; in  Peru, 
1 31,  132  ; in  Chile,  194,  195, 
228  ; in  Bolivia,  320-323 


Coquimbo,  189,  228,  229 


Cordilleras,  4 

. +2» 

45. 

SG  67 

. 74. 

123, 

129, 

130, 

143. 

*49. 

161, 

162, 

188, 

201, 

269, 

i 279. 

297. 

3°S. 

314. 

326, 

342 

See 

also 

Andes 
Cordoba,  5 

Corocoro  copper  mines,  183,  322, 

323 

Coronel,  coaling-station,  194,  195, 
229 

Coropuna  mountain,  109,  112 
Corpus  Christi  festival  in  Santiago, 
208 

Cosmopolitan  La  Paz,  31 1,  312 
Cotagaita,  tin  district,  Bolivia,  315 
Cotaigata  Mountain,  286 
Cotopaxi,  60 

Cotton,  in  Peru,  69, 124-127,  147  ; 
in  Bolivia,  329 

Council  of  State,  Peru,  173  ; in 
Chile,  240 

Cousino  family,  controllers  of  Lota 
and  Coronel,  195 
Cousino  Park,  Lota,  195 
Cousino  Park,  Santiago,  213 
Crucero  Alto,  summit  of  divide, 
1 1 8 

Cuba,  compared  to  Canal  Zone,  5 1 ; 

U.  S.  relations  toward,  361,  362 
Cuenca,  Ecuador,  67 
Culebra  Cut,  45,  52 
Curarey  River,  69 
Currency,  paper,  in  Peru,  178  ; 
metal  and  paper,  in  Bolivia,  349 


25 


386 


INDEX 


Cuzco,  Inca  capital  of  Peru,  119, 
129 

Darien,  or  Caledonian,  cross-cut 
channel  projected,  42 
Darsena  at  Callao,  83 
Deafness  of  infants  in  mountain 
regions,  310 

Death  rate,  see  Birth  and  death  rates 
Debt  of  Chile,  274 
De  Costa,  Senora  Angela,  originator 
of  idea  of  statue  “ Christ  of  the 
Andes,”  269 

De  Fararaond,  Lieutenant  Com- 
mander, French  naval  officer,  181 
De  Lesseps,  residence  of,  38 
Departments  of  Bolivia,  344 
Deposits  and  depositors  in  Santiago 
Savings  Bank,  256 
Desaguadero  River,  299 
Desolation  Islands,  197 
Deutsche  La  Plata  Zeitung,  358 
Diary-making  on  Pacific  steamer, 

' .59 

Diseases,  to  be  controlled  by  sani- 
tation, 19  ; incident  to  West 
Coast,  35  ; to  life  in  Canal  Zone, 
5L  54.  55  i yellow  fever  at 
Guayaquil,  61  ; fever  at  Arica, 
1 8 1 

Dos  de  Mayo,  Peru,  mercury  and 
coal  district,  133 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  visit  to  Arica 
in  1579,  182 
Dress  for  travellers,  25 
Drinks,  native,  26,  27 
Dudley,  Minister,  of  Lima,  97, 
100,  126 
Duran,  65 

Earthquakes  which  have  shaken 
Lima,  93  ; Arequipa,  116  j 
Arica,  182 

Ecuador,  relation  to  Canal,  2 ; trade 
with  U.  S.,  9 ; foreign  trade,  13, 
14,  63  ; railway  exploitation,  65, 
66,  68  ; topography,  67  ; prod- 
ucts, 68,  69  ; minerals,  69  ; pop- 
ulation, 70  ; financial  standing 


and  money,  71,  72;  banks  and 
national  debt,  72 
Editor,  the  ideal,  215,  216 
Edwards,  Mr.  Augustin,  owner  of 
El  Mercurio,  214 

Elections,  in  Chile,  240  ; in  Bolivia, 
344 

El  Mercurio,  of  Santiago  and  Val- 
paraiso, 214,  215,  363 
El  Misti,  extinct  volcano,  109,  117 
Elmore,  Judge  Alberto,  president 
of  Council  of  State,  Peru,  1903, 
169 

El  Oro,  the  gold  country  of  Ecua- 
dor, 69 

Elsa  mine,  324 

English  ports  distant  from  West 
Coast,  12,  13,  63  ; commerce, 
15,  16,  64,  84,  136,  196,  271, 
347  j interests  in  oil  fields,  1315 
in  railroads,  139,  140,  16 1 j at 
Iquique,  185  ; in  nitrate  fields, 
186,  227,  269;  at  Valparaiso, 
190  ; advertising,  202  ; in  San- 
tiago, 213  ; wheac  trade  with 
Chile,  263  ; diplomatic  relations 
with  Bolivia,  346  j concern  with 
Monroe  Doctrine,  352  cl  seq. 
English  spoken  in  South  America, 
22,  23 

Enock,  C.  Reginald,  English  engi- 
neer, 130 

Errazuriz,  Frederico,  former  Chilean 
president,  235 
Escariano,  287,  291 
Esmeraldas,  63 
Eten,  Port  of,  79 

Eugenie,  Empress,  statue  presented 

by,  38 

Evangelist  Islands,  196,  197 
Exchange,  rates  of,  34 

Farmer,  comprehensive  term  'in 
Chile,  212,  213 

Fashions  in  Bolivian  towns,  285, 
295 

Ferrenafe,  Peru,  79 

Ferrol,  Bay  of,  8 i 

Fever  flower  of  Algiers,  181 


INDEX 


387 


Fleas  of  Quilca,  114 
Fleteros,  or  boatmen,  75 
Fomento  de  Fabrica,  or  Manufac- 
turers Association,  of  Chile,  272 
Foreign  Commerce  of  the  U.  S. , An- 
nual Renjienu  l<)04,  table  com- 
piled from,  9 

Foreigners,  may  hold  municipal  offi- 
ces in  Peru,  175  ; from  colonies 
around  Valdivia,  Osorno,  and 
Lake  Llanquihue,  272  ; in  Uyuni, 
296  j scarcity  in  Bolivia,  337  ; 
rights  under  the  government,  345 
Forest  lands  of  southern  Chile,  264 
Fortunes  of  Chileans,  239 
Four  Tears  among  the  South  Ameri- 
cans, 66 

France  in  trade  with  Ecuador,  64  ; 
with  Peru,  127 

Fredonia,  U.  S.  frigate,  destroyed 
by  tidal  wave,  182 
Freight  rates,  16-18;  through 
freight  along  West  Coast,  58  ; 
on  Peruvian  sugar,  128;  affected 
by  Canal,  188 

French  community  at  Valparaiso, 

1 90 

Froward,  Cape,  198 
Fruits,  28,  29 

Fuel  saved  by  Canal  ronte,  13 

Galapagos  Islands,  70,  71,  357 
Galera  tunnel.  Central  Railway, 

lOI 

Garland,  Mr.  Alejandro,  of  Lima, 
97 

Gatun,  first  view  of  Canal  obtained 
from  railroad  at,  44 
Geographical  Society  of  Lima,  152 
German  colony,  157;  immigrants 
desired,  159;  Germans  in  Val- 
paraiso, 190  ; in  Bolivian  rubber 
region,  327  ; concern  in  Monroe 
Doctrine,  358  seq. 

Germany,  in  trade  with  Ecuador, 
64  ; with  Peru,  84  ; sends  min- 
ister to  Bolivia,  346  ; trade  with 
Bolivia,  347 

Gold,  in  Ecuador,  69  ; in  Peru, 


120,131,  132;  in  Chile,  229; 
in  Bolivia,  282,  323-325 
Gold  River  of  St.  John,  324 
Gold  standard,  of  Panama,  19  ; of 
Peru,  177  ; of  Chile,  274;  of 
Bolivia,  349 

Gottschalk,  United  States  Consul, 

1 30 

Granadilla  fruit,  85 
Grape  brandy,  85 
Grape  culture  in  Chile,  265 
Grass  cross  over  dwellings,  307 
Guachella,  Senor  Fernando,  34 
Guadalupe  Mountain,  280,  286, 
291  ; district,  318 
Gualca,  Indian  who  discovered  sil- 
ver at  Potosi,  318 
Guamote,  Ecuador,  65 
Guanaco  skins,  182 
Guano  exported  from  Peru,  15,  79  ; 

Guano  islands,  or  Chinchas,  85 
Guaqui,  on  Lake  Titicaca,  scene 
of  Indian  uprising,  339 
Guayacan  copper  mines,  228 
Guayaquil,  distance  from  U.  S. 
forts,  11,  14  ; from  Panama,  12  ; 
sketch  of,  61  ; relation  to  Canal 
and  commerce,  62,  63  ; banks, 
72 

Guayaquil  Chamber  of  Commerce, 
64 

Guayaquil,  Gulf  of,  60 
Guayas  River,  60 
Guevara,  Bachiler,  forbidden  to 
practise  law  in  Quito,  67 
Gulf  ports,  trade  with  West  Coast 
ports,  1 1 

Gum,  see  Rubber 

Haciendas,  in  Peru,  85,  155  ; in 
central  valley,  Chile,  263 
Hamburg,  distance  from  West 
Coast  ports  via  Panama,  1 3 ; from 
Guayaquil,  63. 

Harvard  Astronomical  Observatory, 
on  Mt.  El  Misti,  117 
Hassaurek,  Frederick,  his  impres- 
sions of  Quito,  66. 

Hats,  Ecuador’s  export  trade  in,  64 


388 


INDEX 


Havre,  distance  from  Guayaquil,  63 
Hay-Varilla  Treaty,  46 
Hay,  John,  late  Secretary  of  State, 
362,  363 

Holidays  in  Bolivia,  345 
Hotels,  29-3 1 

Huaca,  of  Trujillo,  81;  of  Supe,  82 
Hualgayoc  district,  Peru,  silver- 
producing,  132 
Huallaga  River,  6,  137 
Huamachuco,  gold-producing  dis- 
trict, Peru,  132 

Huamalies  district,  Peru,  gold-pro- 
ducing, 132;  coal  deposits,  133 
Huancavelica,  silver-producing  dis- 
trict, Peru,  132;  mercury  de- 
posits, 1 33  ; quicksilver  mines, 
142 

Huanchaca,  town  and  mines,  318 
Huanchaca  Company  of  Bolivia, 
their  reduction  works  at  Antofa- 
gasta, 187,  319 
Huanchaco,  Port  of,  80 
Huantayaja  silver  region,  229 
Huanuco,  German  colony,  157  j 
district  is  gold-producing,  132 
Huaraz  district,  Peru,  copper- 
producing,  132;  iron  and  sul- 
phur deposits,  133 
Huarochiri,  sulphur,  coal,  and  lead 
deposits,  133 

Huaylas  district,  Peru,  copper- 
producing,  132;  coal-mining 
district,  133 

Huayna-Potosi,  tin-mining  district, 

314,  315 

Humboldt,  Von,  2,  325 
Humboldt,  or  Antarctic,  current, 
59 

Hydraulic  power  of  Andes  to  be 
developed,  i 30 

Ibarra,  Ecuador,  69 
Ica  district,  Peru,  gold  and  copper 
producing,  132 

Illampu,  series  of  peaks  in  Oriental 
Cordilleras,  305 

Illimani,  in  the  Bolivian  Andes, 
305,  306 


Immigration,  8,  138,  158,  163, 
272,  34o_ 

Inambari  River  basin,  rubber  in- 
dustry, 120,  136 ; gold-washings, 

132 

Inca,  Peruvian  coin,  35,  177 
Inca  Caracoles  silver  mines,  230 
Inca  Company,  headquarters  in 
Arequipa,  116,  119,  120 
Indians,  25,  44,  75,  79,  105,  116, 

121,  136,  151-157,  181,  195, 

198,  199,  251,  285-287,  295, 

304,  3°5»  308,  309,  328,  337- 

340  _ _ 

Industrial  establishments  of  Chile, 
266. 

Infiernillo  (Little  Hell  or  Devil’s 
Bridge),  on  Central  Railway, 
103 

Ingenia,  287 

Inquisivi,  tin-mining  district,  314; 

bismuth  deposit,  325 
Intercontinental  Railway  Survey, 

70,  153 

Intercontinental  railway,  see  Pan- 
American  trunk  line 
International  Sanitary  Bureau,  18 
Iodine  found  in  nitrate  deposits, 
222 

Iquique,  distance  from  Panama,  1 2 j 
shipping-point  for  soda  nitrates, 
16  ; one  of  the  three  worst  ports 
on  West  Coast,  86  ; sketch  of, 
1 84—186 

Iquitos,  6,  7,  135,  148 
Iron,  in  Ecuador,  70  ; in  Peru,  133, 
147  ; in  Chile,  227 
Irrigation,  86,  112,  124,  125,  127, 
130,  142,  159,  276 
Isla  de  Plata,  Silver  Island, 
73 

Islands  of  Direction,  same  as  Evan- 
gelist Islands 

Islay,  Bay  of,  87  ; town,  88 
Italia,  wine  made  in  Pisco  district, 

Italians,  in  Lima,  96  ; agricultural 
immigrants,  159,  160 
Ivory  nut,  see  Tagua 


INDEX 


389 


Jauja,  valley  of,  presents  possibili- 
ties for  irrigation,  142 
Jebe,  best  quality  crude  rubber,  134 
Jones,  Mr.  Champion,  of  Lima,  90 
“Journalism,  The  Land  of,”  214 
Juliaca,  on  Southern  Railway,  Peru, 

1 19,  1 21 

Junin,  town  and  lake,  106,  222 

Kaolin,  in  Chorolque  district, 
Bolivia,  320 

Kelley,  Frederick  M. , 42 
Kraus,  Jacob,  Holland  engineer, 
1 92 

La  Boca,  railway  terminus  at 
Pacific  mouth  of  Canal,  46 
Laborers,  on  Canal,  50  ; in  Piura 
cotton  lands,  125  ; in  Peruvian 
rubber  forests,  136;  Indian  and 
cholo,  15s  j Chinese  coolies,  158  ; 
mine  workers  needed,  159  ; at 
Iquique,  185  ; in  nitrate  fields, 
223  ; Chilean  roto,  251-255  ; 
in  Chilean  factories,  267  ; Bo- 
livian cholos,  340 
Laca-Amra  River,  Bolivia,  299 
IS  Afr'tcaine,  government  railway 
concession,  341 

La  Lei,  Santiago  newspaper,  215 
La  Mar,  gold-producing  district, 
Peru,  132 

Lambayeque  region  of  Peru,  79, 
129,  133 

Land-owners  in  central  valley,  Chile, 
263 

La  Paz,  Bolivia,  hotels,  30  ; trav- 
ellers to,  300;  sketch  of,  310; 
tin  mined  in  district,  315  ; in 
gold  district,  324;  Aymara  in- 
habitants, 338;  elevation  of, 
341  j Department  in  revolution  of 
1898,  343 

La  Quiaca,  on  Argentine  frontier, 

279 

Larecaja  placers  of  Tipuani,  Bolivia, 

324  _ _ 

Larez  district,  Peru,  iron-producing, 
133 


Lastarria,  J.  V.,  Chilean  diplomat 
and  historian,  250,  251 
La  Vie  Latine,  366 
“ Law,  The,”  Santiago  newspaper, 

215 

Lead,  in  Ecuador,.  70  ; in  Peru, 
132;  in  Chorolque  district, 
Bolivia,  320 

Leger,  Minister,  of  Haiti,  362,  363 
Leguia,  Senor,  of  Pent,  171 
Le  Perou,  Auguste  Plane,  145 
Lima,  Peru,  pure  Spanish  spoken, 
24  ; hotel,  30  J sketch  of,  89- 
100;  censuses,  152;  scene  of 
revolution,  164 
Limon,  Bay  of,  37 
Lipez,  silver  deposit,  318  ; copper 
deposits,  321,  323 
Live-stock  industry,  8,  121,  133, 
134,  263 
Llai-Llai,  202 

Llama,  disposition  of  the,  309 
Llanquihue  district  exports  lumber, 
264  ; colony  on  lake,  272 
Lobos  Islands,  79 
Loja,  in  mining  district  of  Ecuador, 

70 

Lomas,  85 

Lopez  de  Guevara  had  scheme  for 
three  canals,  43 

Loreto,  Department  of,  centre  of 
Peruvian  rubber  district,  134; 
variations  in  government,  173 
Los  Andes,  location  of  spiral  tun- 
nel, 202 

Lota,  194,  195  ; copper  product  of 
district,  228  ; iron  mines,  229 
Lottery  at  Lima,  95  ; at  Santiago, 
213 

Louisiana  Purchase,  resources  of 
the,  3 

Luya  district,  Peru,  gold-producing, 
132 

Machacamarca  smelting  works, 
321 

Machala,  63,  67 

MacKenna,  Benjamin  V.,  historian, 
205 


390 


INDEX 


Madre  de  Dios  rubber  region, 
327 

Magellan,  Territory  of,  264, 
275 

Majo,  Bolivia,  279,  280 
Malmowski,  engineer  of  Central 
Railway,  101 

Manserriche,  Falls  of,  6,  78,  147, 
148 

Manufactories,  of  Lima,  99  ; of 
Chile,  266 

Manufacturers’  Association  of 
Chile,  265,  272 
Manzanillo,  Island  of,  37,  40 
Mapocho  River,  Santiago,  207 
Maranon  River,  6,  78,  80,  132, 
137.  i47>  148 

Maravillas,  silver-smelting  plant  lo- 
cated at,  1 19 
Marcapata  valley,  136 
Marriage  customs  among  Indians, 
i55>  309 

Martinez,  Mr.  Juan  Walker,  21 1, 
219 

Mathieu,  Mr.,  former  Secretary  of 
Chilean  Legation,  312 
Matte,  Mr.  Auguste,  21 1 
Matucana,  104 

Meals,  customs  concerning,  27 
Meier,  Mr.,  American  consul  at 
Mollendo,  114 

Meiggs,  Henry,  builder  of  Central 
Railway  of  Peru,  100,  loi,  no, 
149,  203 

Meiggs,  Mt.,  on  Central  Railway, 
Peru,  104 

Merchant  marine  of  Chile,  270,  271 
“ Mercury,  The,”  of  Santiago  and 
Valparaiso,  214,  215 
Mercury-cinnabar,  Peruvian  dis- 
tricts which  produce,  133 
Mestizos,  27,  151,  154,  155,  337; 

compare  with  Cholos. 

Methodist  Mission  at  Iquique, 
185 

Mexico  of  South  America,  Bo- 
livia, 313-330 

Mica  deposits  near  Quilca,  114 
Military  party  in  Chile,  260 


Mills,  cotton,  in  Peru,  126 
Milluni,  tin-mining  district,  314, 

315 

Mineral  waters,  26 
Mineral  wealth,  of  Andes,  4 ; of 
Ecuador,  69,  78,  81  ; Peruvian 
deposits,  106,  107,  117,  120, 
122,  130-133,  146  j Chilean  de- 
posits, 21 7-23 1,  276;  Bolivian 
deposits,  282,  294,  313-326 
Mining-code,  the  Peruvian,  133 
Mississippi  Valley  will  benefit  from 
Canal,  12 

Molina,  Father,  Jesuit  naturalist, 
205 

Mollendo,  distance  from  Panama, 
1 2 ; trade  passing  through,  1 4 ; 
relation  to  Arica,  16  ; one  of 
three  worst  ports  on  West  Coast, 
86  ; railway  terminus  and  harbor 
improvements,  88  ; trade,  88  j 
use  of  Panama  Canal,  88 
Monastery  of  San  Francisco,  Lima, 
97»  98 

Money,  South  American,  34  ; Ec- 
uadorian, 72 

Monroe  Doctrine  in  South  America, 

70,  351-371 

Montana  region,  68,  123 
Monte  Cristo,  from  Bay  of  Caracas, 
60 

Montes,  President  Ismael,  of  Bo- 
livia, 314,  332,  343,  345 
Montt,  Director  of  National  Li- 
brary, Santiago,  207 
Montt,  Captain  Jorge,  Chilean  in- 
surrectionist, 237 

Montt,  Manuel,  former  Chilean 
president,  233 

Moquegua  district,  Peru,  sulphur- 
producing,  133 

Morgan,  Sir  John,  sacked  Panama, 
41,  45 

Mountain  travel,  supplies  for,  32, 
33  , 

Mule  in  Andean  use,  33 

National  Library,  Lima,  97 
National  Library,  Santiago,  206 


INDEX 


391 


National  Tax  Collection  Society, 
176 

Naturalization  of  foreigners  in  Peru, 
lyS 

Naval  school  at  Talcahuano,  195 
Nazarene,  on  San  Juan  River,  280 
Negro  element,  in  Panamenans,  44; 
blacks  engaged  in  Canal  excava- 
tion, 50  j in  railway  building, 
66  j in  Peruvian  population,  157, 
158 

Neill,  Mr.  Richard,  Secretary 
American  Legation,  Lima,  96 
New  Orleans,  distance  from  West 
Coast  ports,  7,  ii,  14,  63 
New  York,  relative  position  with 
reference  to  West  Coast  ports, 
7,  Ti  ; distance  from  Colon,  12  ; 
from  Valparaiso,  1 2 ; from 
Guayaquil,  14,  62  ; from  Callao, 
>4 

New  York  Chamber  of  Commerce, 
statistics  from,  1 3 

Newspapers,  Chilean,  199,  213- 
216 

Nicaragua  Canal,  one  of  three  pro- 
posed by  Lopez  de  Guevara,  43 
Nitrate  kings,  184,  219 
Nitrates  of  soda,  exports  from  Chile, 
16  ; shipments  from  Iquique, 
16,  186  ; the  product,  2 17-231, 
276,  277 

Noco,  plain  of,  86,  125 
North,  Colonel,  the  nitrate  king, 
184 

Nudos  in  inter-Andine  region,  67 

Oaths,  Spanish,  24 
O’ Higgins,  liberator  of  Chile,  204, 
355  _ 

Old  age  attained  by  Bolivian  peas- 
ants, 281 

Olney,  ex-Secretary,  357 
Oranges  of  Pacasmayo,  79 
Orcoma,  nitrate  district,  224 
Oregon,  Webster’s  valuation  of,  3 
Oropesa,  S.  S.,  191,  196 
Oroya,  on  Central  Railway,  Peru, 
101,  105,  107 


Oroya  Railway,  same  as  Central 
Railway 

Oruro,  hotel  at,  30  ; town  seen 
from  hills,  293  ; sketch  of,  299  ; 
tin  and  silver  mines  in  vicinity, 

314-317.  320 

Osorno,  colony  at,  272 
Otuzco  district,  Peru,  gold-produc- 
ing, 132 

Ovalle,  copper  mines  in  the  district 
of,  228 

Pacasmayo,  79,  80 

Pacific  Company,  concessions  to, 

147 

Pacific  Ocean,  trade  influenced  by 
Canal,  1-20  ; described  by  Friar 
Calancha,  57  ; Pacific  steamers, 
57  ; Southern  ocean  rough,  194 
Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company, 
Valparaiso  office,  249 
Paita,  distance  from  New  York,  7 ; 
from  Panama,  12  ; sketch  of, 
74-78  ; selected  as  terminus  of 
projected  railroad,  147  ; district, 
sulphur  deposits,  133 
Paita,  Bay  of,  6,  74 
Pallasca  district,  Peru,  silver- 
producing,  132  ; lead  deposits, 
133 

Palma,  Dr.  Ricardo,  Director  Na- 
tional Library,  Lima,  97 
Paita,  or  alligator  pear,  28 
Panama  Bay,  58 

Panama  Canal,  industrial  develop- 
ment due  to  the,  1-20  ; toll 
rates,  ii,  15  ; relation  to  Chilean 
trade,  16  ; entrance,  37  ; pro- 
posed routes,  40-43  ; route 
adopted,  44 ; villages  and  in- 
habitants along  course,  44 ; 
Culebra  Cut,  45  ; U.  S.  author- 
ity in  Canal  Zone,  46-50  ; san- 
itation and  hygiene  in  Canal 
Zone,  50-53  ; American  em- 
ployees, 53-55  ; instrument  in 
development  of  Panama,  55  ; 
Guayaquil  trade  will  passthrough, 
62,  64  ; Amazon  traffic  will  pass 


392 


INDEX 


through,  via  Paita,  78  ; effect 
upon  Callao,  84;  Peruvian  traffic, 
88,  125,  128,  131,  135,  139, 
145,  183  ; outlet  for  Cerro  de 
Pasco  mines,  107  ; will  further 
Italian  immigration,  160  ; rela- 
tion to  Iquique  and  the  nitrates, 
186,  227;  will  tend  to  lower 
ocean  freight  charges,  188  j 
bearing  on  Valparaiso  as  harbor, 
193  ; relation  to  Punta  Arenas, 

1 99  ; effect  on  Chilean  commerce, 
270  j value  to  Bolivia,  331,  332, 
350 

Panama,  City  of,  distance  from 
Colon,  Guayaquil,  Paita,  Callao, 
Mollendo,  Arica,  Iquique,  An- 
tofagasta, and  Valparaiso,  12  ; 
growth  of,  395  sacking  by  Mor- 
gan’s buccaneers,  41,  45  ; sketch 
of,  45  ; distance  from  Guayaquil, 
62 

Panama,  Isthmus  of,  3 ; sanitary 
conditions  on,  18  ; gold  stand- 
ard in,  1 9 j waterways  which 
have  been  projected,  41  ; Cham- 
plain conceived  project  of  cutting 
through,  43  ; geographical  posi- 
tion, 43  ; natives  and  villages, 
44  ; government  of,  46,  47  ; 
area,  wealth,  industries,  and  agri- 
culture, 48  ; good  to  be  derived 
from  Canal,  49 

Panama  Railway,  17  ; statue  to 
builders,  39  ; hygienic  work  of, 
39 

Panamenans,  the,  44 

Pan-American  Conference,  18 

Pan-American  tnink  line,  4 

Pando,  General,  former  President 
of  Bolivia,  345 

Pandura,  303 

Pansio  silver  mines,  Chile,  230 

Paper  money  prohibited  in  Peru, 
178 

Para,  Peruvian  rubber  metropolis,  7 

Pardo,  Senor  Jose,  President  of 
Peru,  169-172 

Parties,  political,  in  Chile,  246 


Pataz  distiict,  Peru,  silver-produc- 
ing,  13* 

Patterson,  William,  his  scheme  for 
canal  through  Isthmus,  42 
Paucartambo  district,  gold-produc- 
ing, 132 

Peachy,  American  traveller  in  Peru, 

153 

Pelicans,  79 

Perez,  Carlos,  surveys  and  explora- 
tions of,  142 

Perez,  Jose  Joaquin,  former  Chilean 
president,  233 

Permanent  Industrial  Exhibition, 
266 

Pernambuco,  distance  from  the  Cape 
and  New  York,  12 
Peru,  relation  to  Canal,  2 ; rubber 
industry,  7 ; foreign  commerce, 
14,  15  ; description,  73  seq. 
Peruvian  Congress,  175 
Peruvian  Corporation  of  London, 
loi,  107,  119,  139,  140,  142, 
143,  160,  161,  333 
Peso,  value  of,  274 
Petacas,  or  leather  trunks,  32 
Petroleum,  fields  of  Peru,  78,  122, 
131,  132;  districts  which  pro- 
duce, 133;  deposits  along  shores 
of  Lake  Titicaca,  326  j crude 
product  used  in  Caupolican  Prov- 
ince, 326 

Phillips,  Mr.,  editor  of  La  Lei, 
Santiago,  215,  216 
Pichis,  or  central  highway,  142-146 
Pierola,  General,  President  in  1896, 
143,  167,  170,  177 
Pinto,  Anibal,  former  Chilean 
president,  235 

Pisagua,  in  nitrate  and  guano  region, 
1 84 

Pisco,  85 

Piura,  in  northern  Peru,  78 
Piura  region,  aridity  of,  76,  77  ; 
cotton  cultivation,  124,  147  ; 
American  project  for  irrigating, 
125;  district  produces  petroleum 
and  iron,  133 

Pizarro,  41,  74,  80,  90,  92,  116 


INDEX 


393 


Plane,  A.,  French  engineer  in  Peru, 

145 

Playa  Blanca,  ore-smelters  of 
Huanchaca  Company  at,  320 
Political  history  of  Chile,  232- 

247 

Political  parties  in  Chile,  246 
Poopo,  Lake,  298  ; tin  mines  in 
Province  of,  314 

Population,  growth  in  South  Amer- 
ica, 3,4;  in  valley  and  mountain 
regions,  6 ; in  cereal  region,  8 ; 
in  Ecuador,  70  ; in  trans-Andine 
country,  138  ; in  Peru,  151-163  ; 
of  Chile,  271,  272;  region  be- 
tween Oruro  and  La  Paz,  306  ; 
of  Bolivia,  336-341 
Porco,  tin-mining  district  of  Bo- 
livia, 315  ; silver  deposits,  3185 
copper,  322 

Portugalete  Pass,  291  ; silver  mines 
in  district,  318 
Postal  service,  144 
Potosi,  silver  mines,  293,  318,  319  ; 
tin  mines,  314-316;  need  for 
railroad  facilities,  319,  335 
Prat,  naval  hero,  statue  to,  190 
Presidential  office,  in  Chile,  239  ; in 
Bolivia,  344 

Priests,  in  Chilean  social  life,  212  ; 

Bolivian  priesthood,  307 
Prieto,  Joaquin,  former  Chilean 
president,  233 

Professional  classes,  dress  of,  25 
Projects  for  cutting  through  Isth- 
mus, 40,  41 

Protective  policy  of  Chile,  266 
Protestant  churches  in  Peru,  174 
Puchero,  Spanish  dish,  28 
Pulacayo,  most  productive  silver 
mine  in  South  America,  294, 
319 

Puna,  customs  and  quarantine  port, 
60 

Puno,  on  Lake  Titicaca,  121,  122  ; 
district  produces  coal,  petroleum, 
and  mercury,  133 
Punta  Arenas,  southernmost  town, 
198-200 


Quail  in  barren  country,  288,  292 
Quarantine  regulations,  33,  34,  63 
Quiaca  River,  on  Bolivian  boun- 
dary, 379 

Quichua,  or  aboriginal  Indian  race 
of  Peru,  105,  154,  157,  281, 
292,  293,  304,  338 
Quicksilver  mines  of  Huancavelica, 
142 

Quilca,  113,  1 14 
Quinine  industry,  329 
Quinta  Normal,  or  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station,  Santiago, 
2;I3 

Sluinua,  native  cereal,  307 
Quiros  River,  irrigation  from,  125 
Quisma  Cruz,  or  Three  Crosses,  in 
Oriental  Cordilleras,  305 
Quito,  65,  66 

Racing  a feature  at  Santiago,  213 
Railroads,  through  Andes,  4,  162, 
188;  line  joining  Buenos  Ayres 
and  Valparaiso,  5 ; proposed 
Argentine  and  Bolivian  lines,  5, 
1 5 ; passenger  rates,  3 1 ; devel- 
opment in  Panama,  49  ; lines 
and  projects  in  Ecuador,  65-69  ; 
survey  through  mining  region, 
70 ; Peruvian  line,  78  ; road 
from  Eten,  79  ; project  for 
road  from  Cajamarca,  80  ; line 
from  Chimbote,  82  ; from  Pisco 
to  Ica,  85  ; Central  (Oroya) 
Railway,  100-107  ; American 
syndicate  road  between  Oroya 
and  Cerro  de  Pasco,  107  ; line 
to  Lake  Titicaca,  1 10  ; extension 
from  Sicuani,  119;  engineering 
in  Province  of  Carabaya,  1 1 9 ; 
projected  line  along  Inambari 
River,  120  ; motive  power  fur- 
nished by  river  Rimac,  130  ; use 
of  oil  as  fuel,  131;  Peruvian 
lines,  138-142,  145-150;  pro- 
posed line  out  from  coffee  district, 
161  ; road  from  Arica  to  Tacna, 
182  ; extension  to  La  Paz,  183  ; 
lines  in  nitrate  district,  187,  219, 


394 


INDEX 


221,  222  ; Copiapo  Railway, 
i88;  passenger  accommodations, 
202  ; William  Wheelright’s 
road,  203  ; Chilean  railroad 
policy,  267-269,  275  ; Bolivian 
roads,  278,  314,  332-336  ; 

mines  await  railroads,  3 19-3  21  ; 
Antofagasta  and  Oruro  Railway, 
336  ; concession  granted  by  Bo- 
livia, 341  ; treaty  with  Chile, 
347,  348  ; West  Coast  railway 
development,  351  et  seq. 
Raimondi,  surveys  of  Department 
of  Anacho,  130;  description  of 
central  plateau  of  Bolivia,  297 
Raspadura  channel,  possible  route 
across  Isthmus,  43 
Rates  of  transportation  of  products, 
17,  18 

Reclus,  representing  French  com- 
pany in  exploiting  Darien  route, 
42 

Reconnaissance  Report  upon  the  Pro- 
posed System  of  Bolivian  Rail- 
vuays,  Sisson,  335 
Recuay  district,  Peru,  silver  and 
coal  producing,  132 
Reloncavi,  Bay  of,  at  the  head  of 
Gulf  of  Ancud,  262 
Revenue,  of  Peruvian  government, 
176;  of  Bolivian,  346 
Revolutions,  in  Peru,  164;  in  Bo- 
livia, 343 

Rice  product  of  Peru,  79,  129 
Richest  woman  in  the  world,  the 
widow  Cousino,  195 
Riesco,  President  Jerman,  of  Chile, 
247 

Rimac  valley,  Peru,  103,  130 
Rivadiva  mission  to  Europe,  355 
Road-building,  in  Panama,  49  ; in 
Peru,  120 

Roman  Catholic  Church,  in  Peru, 
157,  174;  in  Chile,  208,  242, 
243  ; attitude  of  roto  toward, 
253.  254;  in  Bolivia,  307, 

308 

Romana,  ex-President  Edward,  of 
Peru,  1 1 5 


Roosevelt,  President,  47,  70,  357, 

358 

Root,  Mr.  Elihu,  357 
Roto,  248-259,  264 
Royal  Andes,  280 
Rubber,  demand  for,  7;  Ecuador’s 
product,  68,  69  ; shipped  through 
Mollendo,  88  ; on  San  Gaban 
River,  120  ; in  Coast  Region, 
Peru,  124 ; Peruvian  forests, 
134-136,  138;  Bolivian  product, 
327,  328 

Saddles  for  mountain  travel,  32 
Sailors,  members  of  Chilean  roto 
as,  254 

Sala,  Father,  surveys  and  explora- 
tions of,  142 

Salaverry,  Peru,  sugar  from,  14  ; 
volume  of  trade  and  unique  in- 
scription, 81 
Salisbury,  Lord,  357 
Salt  fields  east  of  Punta  de  Lobos, 
223 

Saltpetre  fertilizers,  see  nitrates 
Sambo,  origin  of  name,  158 
San  Bartholomew,  tunnel  in  Cho- 
rolque  district,  320 
San  Bartolomew,  on  Central  Rail- 
way of  Peru,  303 
San  Bias  route  proposed  for  Canal, 
42 

Sandia  district,  gold  in,  120,  132 
San  Gaban  River,  120 
Sanitary  conditions  along  Canal,  1 8 , 
50-52,  54,  55;  in  Lima,  99, 
100;  among  Peruvian  Indians, 
157  ; in  Santiago,  207,  258,  259 
San  Jose  mine,  near  Oruro,  300, 
321 

San  Juan  River,  324 
San  Leon,  tunnel  at  entrance  of 
Pulacayo  mine,  319 
San  Lorenzo,  Island  of,  in  harbor 
of  Callao,  85 

San  Martin,  statue  to,  Santiago, 
205 

San  Mateo,  on  Central  Railway  of 
Peru,  103 


INDEX 


395 


San  Miguel  Bay  named,  41 
Santa  Cruz,  Departmwit  of,  gum 
forests  awaiting  development, 
327  ; the  capital,  341 
Santa  Lucia,  mountain  in  Santiago, 
203-205 

Santa  Maria,  Domingo,  former 
Chilean  executive,  236 
Santa  Rosa,  ranch  of,  near  Are- 
quipa,  no 

Santa  Rosa  valley,  Bolivia,  282 
Santiago,  hotels  at,  30,  31  ; sketch 
of,  203-216;  social  questions, 
250  ; savings  bank,  256  ; birth 
and  death  rates  in  province,  257 
Santo  Domingo,  U.  S.  policy 
toward,  359 

Santo  Domingo  gold  mines.  Prov- 
ince of  Carabaya,  116,  119,  izz 
San  Vicente,  Sierra  of,  292 
Saracocha,  Lake,  1 1 8 
Savedro,  Sehor  Don  Angel,  pro- 
jected waterway  through  Isth- 
mus, 42 

Savings  Bank,  Santiago,  256 
School  system  of  Peru,  157  ; school 
conducted  in  Aymara  language, 
304,  305  ; Bolivian  school  sys- 
tem, 344,  345 
Selfridge,  Commander,  42 
Sexes,  even  ratio  of  the,  337 
Sheep-raising,  133,  264 
Shipping  interests  of  Chile,  270,  271 
Sicasica,  at  an  altitude  of  14,000 
feet,  304 
Sicuani,  1 1 9 

Silva,  Mr.,  leader  writer  on  El  Mer- 
curio,  215 

Silver,  in  Ecuador,  70  ; in  Peru, 
107,  131,  132  ; in  Chile,  229  ; 
in  Bolivia,  304,  318-321 
Sinopsis  Estadictica  y Geografica  de 
la  Republica  de  Boli-via,  342 
Sirocke,  or  mountain  sickness,  104, 
118,  288-291 
Sisson,  W.  L.,  335 
Smythe’s  Channel,  196 
Socavan  of  the  Virgin,  silver  mine 
in  Oruro  district,  321 


Social  question  in  Chile,  207,  248- 
261 

Socialistic  doctrines  at  work  in 
Chile,  254 

Society,  in  Lima,  95,  96  ; in  San- 
tiago, 2 1 0-2 1 3 
Sol,  Peruvian  coin,  35,  177 
Solano,  Father  Francis,  founder 
of  Franciscan  Order  in  Peru, 
98 

Sorsby,  Minister,  of  La  Paz,  3 1 1 
South  America,  18^4-1^04,  Akers, 
364 

South  American  Steamship  Com- 
pany offices  burned  by  mob,  249 
Southern  Cross,  57 
Southern  Railway,  loi,  120,  149, 
33  + 

Southernmost  town  of  world,  Punta 
Arenas,  198-200 

Spanish  administrative  system  to  be 
moulded  on  American  model,  48 
Spanish-American,  the,  2 
Spanish  language,  needed  by  trav- 
ellers, 21-25  > spoken  in  its 
purity  at  Lima,  95  ; native  hos- 
tility toward,  157,  3 3 8,  3 39 
State  ownership  of  Chilean  railways, 
267 

Steamships,  in  West  Coast  foreign 
trade,  1 1 ; in  nitrate  trade,  1 6 ; 
in  West  Coast  passenger  service, 
57,  58  ; in  Guayaquil  trade,  62; 
trading  at  Callao,  84  ; at  Valpa- 
raiso, 191  ; in  Chilean  trade,  270, 
271 

Stephens,  John  L.,  statue  to,  39 
Strike  in  Valparaiso,  248,  249 
Stumpff,  engineer  Elsa  Mine,  324 
Succession  in  office  in  Peru,  168 
Suches,  placer  washings  in  gold 
district,  Bolivia,  323 
Sucre,  72. 

Sucre,  old  capital  of  Bolivia,  298, 
311 

Sugar-beet  industry,  265 
Sugar  industry,  in  Peru,  14,  18, 
127,  128  ; in  Ecuador,  69  ; 
amount  shipped  via  Pacasmayo, 


396 


INDEX 


79  ; through  Huanchaco,  8o ; 
industry  in  Chile,  265,  266 
Suipacha,  on  San  Juan  River, 
280 

Sulphur  beds,  near  Bay  of  Sechura, 
78  ; on  Lake  Titicaca  Railroad, 
117  ; Peruvian  provinces  which 
produce,  133 

Supe,  the  landing-place,  82 
Superunda,  Count,  memoirs  of,  93 

Taboga  Isle,  45 

Tacna,  Pampas  of,  224  ; tin  mines 
in  district,  315 

Tacora,  Mt.,  in  Bolivia,  183 
Taft,  Secretary,  47 
Tagua,  or  ivory  nut,  Ecuador’s 
production  of,  64 
Talcahuano,  naval  port,  195 
Taltal,  nitrate  shipping-port,  188 
Tambilla,  292 
Tambo  de  Mora,  86 
Tambos,  or  inns,  31  ; one  at  Majo, 
Bolivia,  279 

Tarapaca,  Province  of,  lost  to  Chile, 
152,  217;  saltpetre  region,  217- 
226 

Tarata,  sulphur-producing  district, 
Peru,  133 

Tarija,  capital  of  agricultural  region 
in  southeast  Bolivia,  341 
Tarma,  coal-mining  district,  Peru, 

133 

Taxes,  in  Peru,  176  ; in  Bolivia, 
346 

Tayacaja  district,  Peru,  gold-pro- 
ducing, 132 

Tehuantepec  Canal,  one  of  three 
proposed  by  Lopez  de  Guevara, 
43 

Telegraph  line  from  Lima  to  Ber- 
mudez, 144 

Telegraph  line,  monument  com- 
memorating completion  of,  San- 
tiago, 205 

Timber  lands  of  southern  Chile, 
264 

Tin  product  of  Bolivia,  314-317, 
320 


Tipuani  placer  washings  in  gold 
district,  Bolivia,  323 
Tirapata,  railroad  station  for  mines 
of  Carabaya  Province,  119 
Titicaca,  Lake,  trip  from  Are- 
quipa  to,  1 17-122 
Tobacco,  crop  in  Ecuador,  69  ; 
tax  in  Peru  set  aside  for  railroads, 
141 

Toll  rates  through  Canal,  13,  15 
Tombs  at  Caracollo,  302,  303, 

305  _ _ 

Trades  unions  in  Chile,  250,  251 
Travellers,  should  practise  customs 
of  natives,  21  ; need  for  knovvl- 
edge  of  Spanish,  21-25  ; dress, 
25  ; eating  and  drinking,  26- 
29;  hotels,  Z9-31  ; care  of  bag- 
gage, 3 1 j railroad  fares  and  night 
trains,  3 1 5 charges  for  embarka- 
tion and  disembarkation,  32  ; 
supplies  for  mountain  travel,  32, 
33  ; fodder  for  animals,  33  ; 
quarantine  regulations,  33,  34; 
money,  34  j diseases,  35;  friction 
with  natives  and  officials  in  Peru, 

175 

Treasure  islands,  73 
Treaty  between  Bolivia  and  Chile 
ratified  1905,  347,  348 
Treaty  of  Ancon,  83 
Trujillo,  81 

Trunks  carried  on  pack  animals, 
32 

Tucapel,  West  Coast  vessel,  82 
Tucker,  surveys  and  explorations 
of,  142 

Tucuman,  5,  188 
Tumbez,  73,  74  ; district,  oil-pro- 
ducing, 131;  sulphur  and  petro- 
leum deposits,  133 
Tupiza,  Bolivia,  hotel  at,  30  ; 
sketch  of,  283-286 

Ubina  Mountain,  286 
Ucayali  River,  137,  146 
Union  Club,  Santiago,  211 
Union  district,  Peru,  gold-producing, 
132. 


INDEX  397 


United  States,  trade  with  Argentine, 
9j  with  West  Coast  countries, 
lo;  policy  toward  Canal,  ii; 
direct  benefit  derived,  125  author- 
ity in  Canal  Zone,  17-20,  37-40 
University  of  San  Marcos,  Lima, 
97 

Uruguay,  grain  and  cattle  in- 
dustries in,  8 

Uyuni,  Bolivia,  293-296,  315 

V’s  and  VV’s,  102 
Valdivia,  Pedro,  statue  to,  at  San- 
tiago, 203 

Valdivia  Province,  229,  264  ; town, 
272 

Valparaiso,  distance  from  Panama 
and  New  York,  12  ; from  Liver- 
pool, 13  j hotels,  31  ; sketch  of, 
1 89-1 94 

Vegetable  ivory,  same  as  Ivory 
nut. 

Verrugas,  on  Central  Railway  of 
Peru,  103 

Verrugas,  or  bleeding  warts,  103 
Vice-presidency  in  Chile,  243 
Vicuna,  Archbishop,  memorials  to, 
at  Santiago,  204 

Vicuna  high-grade  wool  and  rugs, 
116,  122,  182 
Vicunas,  1 1 8,  133 
Vilcanata  River,  119 
Village  life  in  Bolivian  Andes,  280 
et  seq. 

Villamil  family  controlled  Larecaja 
properties,  324 
Villa  Villa,  Bolivia,  303 
Villazon,  Senor,  Vice-president  of 
Bolivia,  343 

Vina  del  Mar,  seashore  resort  near 
Valparaiso,  213 
Vincocaya,  ri8 
Vineyards  of  Pisco,  85 
Vitor,  no 
Vitor  River,  113 
Von  Bulow,  Chancellor,  358 
Von  Hassel,  surveyor  and  explorer, 
146 

Von  Stenberg,  Baron,  358 


Washington,  Booker  T.,his  work 
a subject  of  discussion,  215 
Wateree,  U.  S.  frigate,  carried  in- 
land by  tidal  wave,  182 
Water-fowl,  117 
Watermelons  of  Pisco,  86 
Webster,  Daniel,  3 
Weed-killing  plant  in  use  on  tropi- 
cal railway,  65 

Werthemann,  surveys  and  explora- 
tions of,  142 

Wetherill  system  in  San  Jose  smelt- 
ing works,  321 

Wheat  shipped  from  central  valley, 

263 

Wheelright,  William,  pioneer  rail- 
road builder  of  Chile  and  Argen- 
tina, 188,  190,  203 
White  Spirit  of  the  Illimani,  an- 
cient deity  of  Bolivian  Indians, 
308 

Whitehead,  American  traveller  in 
Peru,  153 

Wines,  imported  and  native,  26  ; 
Italia,  wine  made  in  Pisco  dis- 
trict, 85 

Wireless  telegraphy  station  at  south- 
ernmost town  of  the  world, 
199 

Wolfe,  surveys  and  explorations  of, 
142 

Wolfram  in  Chorolque  district, 
Bolivia,  203 

Women,  conductors  on  Santiago 
tramways,  205  ; Chilean,  2125 
Bolivian  Indian,  309 
Wood,  Rev.  Dr. , Methodist  clergy- 
man in  Lima,  162 
Wool  trade,  12,  264 
Woollens  needed  by  travellers, 

25 

Wyse,  representing  French  com- 
pany in  exploiting  Darien  route, 
42 

Yani  River  placer  washings,  324 
Yauli,  on  Central  Railway,  Peru, 
103  ; silver  and  copper  deposits, 
132  j lead  deposits,  133 


398 


INDEX 


Yauyos,  coal-mining  district,  Peru, 

Yavari  River,  frontier,  rubber  in- 
dustry, 136 
Yunca  Indians,  154 
Yura,  iron  and  sulphur  springs,  1 15 
Yuracares,  department  of  Cocha- 
bamba, produces  a species  of 
rubber  tree,  327 


Yurimaguas  on  the  Huallaga  River, 
6,  80 

Yuruma,  village  in  Royal  Andes, 
280 

Zambo,  same  as  Sambo 
Zaruma,  centre  of  gold-mining  re- 
gion, 69 

Zarzuela,  or  one-act  comedy,  212 


TABLES 


Commercial  relations  of  West  Coast 
with  United  States,  9 
Distances  of  shipping  ports  on  West 
Coast  to  trade  centres,  12 
Distances  and  elevation  above  sea- 
level  of  the  Central  Railway  of 
Peru,  102 

Mineral  output  of  Peru  for  one 
year,  132 

Itinerary  from  Lima  to  Iquitos  via 
Central  Highway,  144 


Distances  on  railway  from  Paita  to 
Piura,  148 

Product  of  the  nitrate  zone, 
224 

Tin  product  of  Bolivia,  316 
Metals  found  in  combination  with 
copper,  Bolivia,  322 
Population  of  Bolivia,  337 
Temperature  and  products  of  zones, 
Bolivia,  342 
Rainfall,  Bolivia,  343 


■1 

1 


■i 


DATE  DUE 

GAYLORD 

PAINTCO  IN  U.S.  A. 

